Predicting Placenta Accreta Spectrum: Validation of the Placenta Accreta Index.

OBJECTIVES: The placenta accreta spectrum (PAS) incidence has risen substantially over the past century, paralleling a rise in cesarean delivery (CD) rates. Prenatal diagnosis of PAS improves maternal outcomes. The Placenta Accreta Index (PAI) is a standardized approach to prenatal diagnosis of PAS incorporating clinical risk and ultrasound (US) findings suggestive of placental invasion. We sought to validate the PAI for prediction of PAS in pregnancies with prior CD. METHODS: This work was a retrospective cohort study of pregnancies with 1 or more prior CDs that received a US diagnosis of placenta previa or low-lying placenta in the third trimester. Images of third-trimester US with a complete placental evaluation were read by 2 blinded physicians, and the PAI was applied. Surgical outcomes and pathologic findings were reviewed. Placenta accreta spectrum was diagnosed if clinical evidence of invasion was seen at time of delivery or if any placental invasion was identified histologically. International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics criteria were used. RESULTS: A total of 194 women met inclusion criteria. Cesarean hysterectomy was performed in 92 (47%), CD in 97 (50%), and vaginal delivery in 5 (3%). Of those who underwent hysterectomy, PAS was histologically confirmed in 79 (85%) pregnancies. Of the remaining 13 who underwent hysterectomy, all met International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics grade 1 clinical criteria for PAS. With a threshold of greater than 4, the PAI has a sensitivity of 87%, specificity of 77%, positive predictive value of 72%, and negative predictive value of 90% for PAS diagnosis. CONCLUSIONS: Contemporaneous application of the PAI, a standardized approach to US diagnosis, is useful in the prenatal prediction of PAS.

Prospective First-Trimester Ultrasound Imaging of Low Implantation and Placenta Accreta Spectrum.

OBJECTIVES: To prospectively evaluate low implantation of the gestational sac and other first-trimester ultrasound (US) parameters for prediction of placenta accreta spectrum (PAS). METHODS: Women with a diagnosis of low implantation on clinically indicated first-trimester US underwent a transvaginal US examination at 10 to 13 weeks' gestation to assess the trophoblast location, anechoic areas, bridging vessels, and smallest myometrial thickness (SMT). The placental location was evaluated in the second trimester, and serial US examinations were performed in cases of low placentation. Placenta accreta spectrum was based on clinical findings and confirmed by histologic results. RESULTS: Of 68 women, 40 (59%) had prior cesarean delivery (CD). Hysterectomy was performed in 8, all with prior CD. Of these, 7 (88%) had US suspicion of PAS. In 16 with prior CD and basalis overlying the internal os, 9 (56%) had second-trimester placenta previa, and 7 of 9 (78%) underwent hysterectomy with pathologic confirmation of PAS. Of 28 without prior CD, there were no cases of persistent low placentation in the third trimester regardless of the trophoblast location. Ultrasound parameters associated with PAS were a smaller distance from the inferior trophoblastic border to the external os, disruption of the bladder-serosal interface, bridging vessels, anechoic areas, and the SMT. In women with prior CD, use of the SMT in the sagittal plane yielded an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of 0.96 (95% confidence interval, 0.91-1.00). CONCLUSIONS: First-trimester low implantation increases the risk of persistent placenta previa and PAS in women with prior CD. All parameters were associated with PAS, the most predictive being the SMT.

Congenital syphilis: A contemporary update on an ancient disease.

Congenital syphilis (CS) rates reached a 20-year high in the United States in 2018. Unlike previous years, most babies diagnosed with CS were born to mothers who received prenatal care, indicative of the need for better provider education and guideline adherence. Current rates suggest that screening for syphilis should be performed at the first prenatal care visit and twice during the third trimester. There are two diagnostic algorithms available for use in the United States (traditional and reverse) and providers must understand how to perform each algorithm. Treatment should be administered according to stage of syphilis per Centers for Disease Control recommendations with best neonatal outcomes seen when treatment is initiated >30 days before delivery. Benzathine Penicillin G remains the only recommended treatment of syphilis during pregnancy. In viable pregnancies, a pretreatment ultrasound is recommended to identify sonographic evidence of fetal infection and treatment should be initiated with continuous fetal monitoring to evaluate for the Jarisch-Herxheimer reaction which can cause preterm labor and fetal distress. After adequate syphilotherapy, a fourfold decline in maternal nontreponemal titers may not be observed by delivery and does not correlate with rates of CS.

Cervical Length in Patients at Risk for Placenta Accreta.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate cervical length measurements in women with placenta accreta compared to women with a nonadherent low-lying placenta or placenta previa and evaluate this relationship in terms of vaginal bleeding, preterm labor, and preterm birth. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective cohort study between 1997 and 2011 of gravidas with more than 1 prior cesarean delivery who had a transvaginal ultrasound examination between 24 and 34 weeks for a low-lying placenta or placenta previa. Cervical length was measured from archived images in accordance with national guidelines by a single investigator, who was blinded to outcomes and ultrasound reports. The diagnosis of placental accreta was based on histologic confirmation. For study purposes, preterm birth was defined as less than 36 weeks, and cervical lengths of 3 cm or less were considered short. Standard statistical analyses were used. RESULTS: A total of 125 patients met inclusion criteria. The cohort was divided into patients with (n = 43 [34%]) and without (n = 82 [66%]) placenta accreta and stratified by gestational age at the ultrasound examinations. Women with placenta accreta had shorter cervical length measurements during their 32- to 34-week ultrasound examinations (mean ± SD, 3.23 ± 0.98 versus 3.95 ± 1.0 cm; P < .01) and were more likely to have a short cervix of 3 cm or less (P = .001). However, these findings did not correlate with the degree of invasion (P = .3), or higher rates of vaginal bleeding and preterm labor (P = .19) resulting in preterm birth before 36 weeks (P = .64). CONCLUSIONS: Women with placenta accreta had shorter cervical lengths at 32 to 34 weeks than women with a nonadherent low-lying placenta or placenta previa, but this finding did not correlate with a higher risk of vaginal bleeding or preterm labor resulting in preterm birth before 36 weeks.

Syphilis during pregnancy: a preventable threat to maternal-fetal health.

Syphilis remains the most common congenital infection worldwide and has tremendous consequences for the mother and her developing fetus if left untreated. Recently, there has been an increase in the number of congenital syphilis cases in the United States. Thus, recognition and appropriate treatment of reproductive-age women must be a priority. Testing should be performed at initiation of prenatal care and twice during the third trimester in high-risk patients. There are 2 diagnostic algorithms available and physicians should be aware of which algorithm is utilized by their testing laboratory. Women testing positive for syphilis should undergo a history and physical exam as well as testing for other sexually transmitted infections, including HIV. Serofast syphilis can occur in patients with previous adequate treatment but persistent low nontreponemal titers (<1:8). Syphilis can infect the fetus in all stages of the disease regardless of trimester and can sometimes be detected with ultrasound >20 weeks. The most common findings include hepatomegaly and placentomegaly, but also elevated peak systolic velocity in the middle cerebral artery (indicative of fetal anemia), ascites, and hydrops fetalis. Pregnancies with ultrasound abnormalities are at higher risk of compromise during syphilotherapy as well as fetal treatment failure. Thus, we recommend a pretreatment ultrasound in viable pregnancies when feasible. The only recommended treatment during pregnancy is benzathine penicillin G and it should be administered according to maternal stage of infection per Centers for Disease Control and Prevention guidelines. Women with a penicillin allergy should be desensitized and then treated with penicillin appropriate for their stage of syphilis. The Jarisch-Herxheimer reaction occurs in up to 44% of gravidas and can cause contractions, fetal heart rate abnormalities, and even stillbirth in the most severely affected pregnancies. We recommend all viable pregnancies receive the first dose of benzathine penicillin G in a labor and delivery department under continuous fetal monitoring for at least 24 hours. Thereafter, the remaining benzathine penicillin G doses can be given in an outpatient setting. The rate of maternal titer decline is not tied to pregnancy outcomes. Therefore, after adequate syphilotherapy, maternal titers should be checked monthly to ensure they are not increasing four-fold, as this may indicate reinfection or treatment failure.

Sonographic Findings of Morbidly Adherent Placenta in the First Trimester.

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the association between first-trimester sonographic findings and morbidly adherent placenta at delivery. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective review of all first-trimester sonographic examinations from pregnancies that underwent third-trimester sonography for placenta previa or low-lying placenta between September 1997 and October 2011. Only women with a prior cesarean delivery were included. Transabdominal and transvaginal images from these first-trimester studies were reviewed for the following sonographic parameters: distance from the inferior border of the gestational sac to the external cervical os, location of the decidua basalis, presence of anechoic areas, uterine-bladder interface irregularity, and smallest anterior myometrial thickness. Morbidly adherent placentation was confirmed on histologic examination of hysterectomy specimens. Statistical methods included univariate and multivariate analyses. RESULTS: Thirty-nine patients met inclusion criteria, of whom 14 (36%) had confirmed placental invasion. The number of prior cesarean deliveries was significantly associated with placental invasion (P < .0001). The only first-trimester sonographic finding associated with invasion was the smallest anterior myometrial thickness measured in the sagittal plane (P < .02). Multivariate analysis based on these two variables yielded an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of 0.94 (95% confidence interval, 0.87-1.00) and significantly improved the prediction of placental invasion compared to using the number of prior cesarean deliveries alone. CONCLUSIONS: In women with persistent placenta previa or low-lying placenta and prior cesarean delivery, the smallest anterior myometrial thickness on first-trimester sonography significantly improved detection of morbidly adherent placenta.

Placenta accreta and vaginal bleeding according to gestational age at delivery.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the incidence of vaginal bleeding in women with placenta accreta according to gestational age at delivery. METHODS: This is a retrospective cohort study of women with prior cesarean delivery and persistent placenta previa delivered at our institution between December 1997 and December 2011. Diagnosis of invasion was based on hysterectomy performed for an abnormally adherent placenta with histologic confirmation. Suspicion for invasion was based on the impression of the attending physician at the time of ultrasonography. Records were reviewed to identify indication for delivery and estimated blood loss. Statistical analyses were performed using Student's t test, χ2 test, and Mantel-Haenszel and Jonckheere-Terpstra tests for trend. RESULTS: Of 216 women with prior cesarean delivery and persistent previa, 65 (30%) required cesarean hysterectomy and had histologic confirmation of invasion. Urgent delivery for bleeding was performed in 20% of these pregnancies (13/65). Delivery for bleeding decreased significantly with advancing gestation (P=.001). In our series, 71% with accreta were delivered at 36 weeks of gestation or greater with delivery for bleeding in five (11%), and estimated blood loss was not increased in these pregnancies. Of 79 women with ultrasonographic suspicion for accreta, the incidence of vaginal bleeding prompting urgent delivery also decreased with advancing gestation (P<.001). CONCLUSION: Likelihood of vaginal bleeding necessitating delivery declined with advancing gestation in pregnancies with placenta accreta as did blood loss. Most were delivered at 36 weeks of gestation or greater, nearly 90% in the absence of bleeding complications. Thus, although preterm delivery is an important consideration when placenta accreta is suspected, our findings support individualizing delivery planning.

Ultrasound predictors of placental invasion: the Placenta Accreta Index.

OBJECTIVE: We sought to apply a standardized evaluation of ultrasound parameters for the prediction of placental invasion in a high-risk population. STUDY DESIGN: This was a retrospective review of gravidas with ≥1 prior cesarean delivery who received an ultrasound diagnosis of placenta previa or low-lying placenta in the third trimester at our institution from 1997 through 2011. Sonographic images were reviewed by an investigator blinded to pregnancy outcome and sonography reports. Parameters assessed included loss of retroplacental clear zone, irregularity and width of uterine-bladder interface, smallest myometrial thickness, presence of lacunar spaces, and bridging vessels. Diagnosis of placental invasion was based on histologic confirmation. Statistical analyses were performed using linear logistic regression and multiparametric analyses to generate a predictive equation evaluated using a receiver operating characteristic curve. RESULTS: Of 184 gravidas who met inclusion criteria, 54 (29%) had invasion confirmed on hysterectomy specimen. All sonographic parameters were associated with placental invasion (P < .001). Constructing a receiver operating characteristic curve, the combination of smallest sagittal myometrial thickness, lacunae, and bridging vessels, in addition to number of cesarean deliveries and placental location, yielded an area under the curve of 0.87 (95% confidence interval, 0.80-0.95). Using logistic regression, a predictive equation was generated, termed the "Placenta Accreta Index." Each parameter was weighted to create a 9-point scale in which a score of 0-9 provided a probability of invasion that ranged from 2-96%, respectively. CONCLUSION: Assignment of the Placenta Accreta Index may be helpful in predicting individual patient risk for morbidly adherent placenta.

Maternal titers after adequate syphilotherapy during pregnancy.

BACKGROUND: We aimed to construct a timeline for nontreponemal titer decline specific to pregnancy and evaluate factors associated with inadequate decline by delivery. METHODS: This was a retrospective medical records review from September 1984 to June 2011 of women diagnosed with syphilis after 18 weeks of gestation. Women were treated according to stage of syphilis per Centers for Disease Control and Prevention guidelines. Patients with both pretreatment and delivery titers were included for data analysis. Demographics, stage of syphilis, maternal titers, delivery, and infant outcomes were recorded. Standard statistical analyses were performed for categorical and continuous data. The titer decline was analyzed using mixed-effects regression modeling. RESULTS: A total of 166 patients met inclusion criteria. Mean gestational age at treatment was 29.1 ± 5 weeks, and 93 (56%) women were diagnosed with early-stage syphilis. For all stages of syphilis, maternal titers declined after syphilotherapy. Pretreatment titers were higher and declined more rapidly in primary and secondary disease than in latent-stage disease and syphilis of unknown duration. Sixty-three (38%) patients achieved a 4-fold decline by delivery. Patients without a 4-fold decline by delivery were older (24.6 vs 21.5 years; P < .001), treated later in pregnancy (30.3 vs 27.3 weeks; P < .001), diagnosed with latent syphilis or syphilis of unknown duration, and had less time from treatment to delivery (7.8 vs 11.1 weeks; P < .001). CONCLUSIONS: Maternal serologic response during pregnancy after adequate syphilotherapy varied by stage of disease. Failure to achieve a 4-fold decline in titers by delivery is more a reflection of treatment timing than of treatment failure.

Prevention and management of viral hepatitis in pregnancy.

Of the 5 types of viral hepatitis (HAV-HEV), HBV and HCV are by far the most common causes of chronic hepatitis in both pregnant and nonpregnant populations, causing more than 50% of cirrhosis cases and 78% of cases of primary liver cancer. Infection during pregnancy can have adverse effects on both the mother and her fetus. For all 5 viral hepatitis syndromes, early identification allows appropriate measures to be taken to optimize pregnancy outcomes and minimize the risk of perinatal transmission. This article reviews the prevention and management of all 5 viral hepatitis syndromes during pregnancy.

Genitourinary tuberculosis: a rare cause of obstructive uropathy in pregnancy.

Background. A rare but morbid form of extrapulmonary tuberculosis (TB), genitourinary TB is an important cause of obstructive uropathy and is likely underdiagnosed in pregnancy. Case. A 30-year-old primigravida undergoing treatment for active pulmonary TB presented with anuria at 13-14-weeks gestation. Bilateral ureteral strictures above the level of the ureterovesicular junctions were seen on imaging studies. Given her pulmonary disease, her obstructive uropathy was attributed to genitourinary TB. Bilateral percutaneous nephrostomy tubes were placed during pregnancy with successful ureteral reimplantation postpartum. Conclusion. Genitourinary TB should be considered as an etiology of urinary tract pathology during pregnancy, especially in foreign-born and immunocompromised persons. Early recognition resulting in prompt treatment can prevent further deterioration of maternal renal function and optimize pregnancy outcomes.

Progression of ultrasound findings of fetal syphilis after maternal treatment.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to evaluate ultrasound findings of fetal syphilis and to describe their progression after maternal treatment. STUDY DESIGN: This was a retrospective cohort study from September 1981 to June 2011 of seropositive women after 18 weeks of gestation who had an ultrasound before treatment to evaluate for fetal syphilis. Only those women who received treatment after the initial ultrasound scan, but before delivery, were included. If the initial ultrasound scan was abnormal, serial sonography was performed until resolution of the abnormality or delivery. Patient demographics, ultrasound findings, stage of syphilis, delivery, and infant outcomes were recorded. Standard statistical analyses were performed. Kaplan-Meier estimates were constructed to estimate time to resolution. RESULTS: Two hundred thirty-five women met the inclusion criteria; 73 of them (30%) had evidence of fetal syphilis on initial ultrasound scan. Abnormalities included hepatomegaly (79%), placentomegaly (27%), polyhydramnios (12%), ascites (10%) and abnormal middle cerebral arterial Doppler assessment (33%). After treatment, middle cerebral arterial Doppler assessment abnormalities, ascites, and polyhydramnios resolved first, followed by placentomegaly and finally hepatomegaly. Infant outcomes were available for 173 deliveries; of these, 32 infants (18%) were diagnosed with congenital syphilis. Congenital syphilis was more common when antenatal ultrasound abnormalities were present (39% vs 12%; P < .001). Infant examination findings at delivery were similar between women with and without an abnormal pretreatment ultrasound scan. However, in those infants with congenital syphilis, hepatomegaly was the most frequent abnormality found, regardless of antenatal ultrasound findings. CONCLUSION: Sonographic signs of fetal syphilis confer a higher risk of congenital syphilis at delivery for all maternal stages. Hepatomegaly develops early and resolves last after antepartum treatment.

Extensive thrombosis and first-trimester pregnancy loss caused by sticky platelet syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Sticky platelet syndrome is an autosomal-dominant thrombophilia characterized by platelet hyperaggregability in the presence of adenosine diphosphate or epinephrine. The result clinically can be widespread thromboses, often arterial, in patients without apparent risk factors for thrombotic disease. Limited data exist regarding its role in adverse pregnancy outcomes. CASE: A gravid woman with two previous first-trimester miscarriages presented at 11 weeks of gestation with a deep venous thrombosis. Despite anticoagulation, she developed extensive and progressive arterial and venous thromboses and suffered a fetal demise. A thrombophilia panel was unremarkable, but platelet aggregometry demonstrated hyperactive platelets in the presence of adenosine diphosphate and epinephrine consistent with sticky platelet syndrome. CONCLUSION: Sticky platelet syndrome causes arterial thromboses and may be an underappreciated etiology for adverse pregnancy outcomes.