Single-Crystal-to-Single-Crystal Topochemical Synthesis of a Collagen-inspired Covalent Helical Polymer.

There is much demand for crystalline covalent helical polymers. Inspired by the helical structure of collagen, we synthesized a covalent helical polymer wherein the repeating dipeptide Gly-Pro units are connected by triazole linkages. We synthesized an azide and alkyne-modified dipeptide monomer made up of the repeating amino acid sequence of collagen. In its crystals, the monomer molecules aligned in head-to-tail fashion with proximally placed azide and alkyne forming supramolecular helices. At 60 °C, the monomer underwent single-crystal-to-single-crystal (SCSC) topochemical azide-alkyne cycloaddition polymerization, yielding a covalent helical polymer as confirmed by single-crystal X-ray diffraction (SCXRD) analysis. Compared to the monomer crystals, the polymer single-crystals were very strong and showed three-fold increase in Young's modulus, which is higher than collagen, many synthetic polymers and other materials. The crystals of this covalent helical polymer could bear loads as high as 1.5 million times of their own weight without deformation. These crystals could also withstand high compression force and did not disintegrate even at an applied force of 98 kN. Such light-weight strong materials are in demand for various technological applications.

Topochemical Synthesis of a Heterochiral Peptide Polymer in Different Polymorphic Forms from Crystals and Aerogels.

We have designed a heterochiral dipeptide monomer (N3 -D-Ala-L-Val-NHCH2 C≡CH) modified with an azide group and an alkyne at its termini for topochemical azide-alkyne cycloaddition (TAAC) polymerization. We obtained two different polymorphs: PI (P21 ) from a DCM-toluene mixture, and PII (P-1) from a hexane-ethyl acetate mixture. PI adopts parallel ß-sheet packing, and PII adopts antiparallel ß-sheet packing. In both the cases, molecules from adjacent ß-stacks are arranged in a head-to-tail manner. On heating, the polymorphs underwent TAAC reaction to form linear polymers having parallel ß-sheet-like ordering (PI) and an antiparallel ß-sheet structure (PII). PI reacted spontaneously at room temperature and the crystals showed cracking after the reaction, but PII was intact even after complete reaction. The dipeptide congealed various solvents, and the aerogels were identical to PI. These aerogels also underwent spontaneous TAAC reaction at room temperature to yield a pseudoprotein with alternate D- and L-amino acids.

Topochemical polymerizations for the solid-state synthesis of organic polymers.

Topochemical polymerizations are solid-state reactions driven by the alignment of monomers in the crystalline state. The molecular confinement in the monomer crystal lattice offers precise control over the tacticity, packing and crystallinity of the polymer formed in the topochemical reaction. As topochemical reactions occur under solvent- and catalyst-free conditions, giving products in high yield and selectivity/specificity that do not require tedious chromatographic purification, topochemical polymerizations are highly attractive over traditional solution-phase polymer synthesis. By this method, polymers having sophisticated structures and desired topologies can be availed. Often, such ordered packing confers attractive properties to the topochemically-synthesized polymers. Diverse categories of topochemical polymerizations are known, such as polymerizations via [2+2], [4+4], [4+2], and [3+2] cycloadditions, and polymerization of diynes, triynes, dienes, trienes, and quinodimethanes, each of which proceed under suitable stimuli like heat, light or pressure. Each class of these reactions requires a unique packing arrangement of the corresponding monomers for the smooth reaction and produces polymers with distinct properties. This review is penned with the intent of bringing all the types of topochemical polymerizations into a single platform and communicating the versatility of these lattice-controlled polymerizations. We present a brief history of the development of each category and comprehensively review the topochemical synthesis of fully-organic polymers reported in the last twenty years, particularly in crystals. We mainly focus on the various molecular designs and crystal engineering strategies adopted to align monomers in a suitable orientation for polymerization. Finally, we analyze the current challenges and future perspectives in this research field.

Chirality-controlled spontaneous twisting of crystals due to thermal topochemical reaction.

Crystals that show mechanical response against various stimuli are of great interest. These stimuli induce polymorphic transitions, isomerizations, or chemical reactions in the crystal and the strain generated between the daughter and parent domains is transcribed into mechanical response. We observed that the crystals of modified dipeptide LL (N3-l-Ala-l-Val-NHCH2C≡CH) undergo spontaneous twisting to form right-handed twisted crystals not only at room temperature but also at 0 °C over time. Using various spectroscopic techniques, we have established that the twisting is due to the spontaneous topochemical azide-alkyne cycloaddition (TAAC) reaction at room temperature or lower temperatures. The rate of twisting can be increased by heating, exploiting the faster kinetics of the TAAC reaction at higher temperatures. To address the role of molecular chirality in the direction of twisting the enantiomer of dipeptide LL, N3-d-Ala-d-Val-NHCH2C≡CH (DD), was synthesized and topochemical reactivity and mechanoresponse of its crystals were studied. We have found that dipeptide DD not only underwent TAAC reaction, giving 1,4-triazole-linked pseudopolypeptides of d-amino acids, but also underwent twisting with opposite handedness (left-handed twisting), establishing the role of molecular chirality in controlling the direction of mechanoresponse. This paper reports (i) a mechanical response due to a thermal reaction and (ii) a spontaneous mechanical response in crystals and (iii) explains the role of molecular chirality in the handedness of the macroscopic mechanical response.

Crystal-to-Crystal Synthesis of Triazole-Linked Pseudo-proteins via Topochemical Azide-Alkyne Cycloaddition Reaction.

Isosteric replacement of amide bond(s) of peptides with surrogate groups is an important strategy for the synthesis of peptidomimetics (pseudo-peptides). Triazole is a well-recognized bio-isostere for peptide bonds, and peptides with one or more triazole units are of great interest for different applications. We have used a catalyst-free and solvent-free method, viz., topochemical azide-alkyne cycloaddition (TAAC) reaction, to synthesize pseudo-proteins with repeating sequences. A designed ß-sheet-forming l-Ala-l-Val dipeptide containing azide and alkyne at its termini (N3-Ala-Val-NHCH2C≡CH, 1) was synthesized. Single-crystal XRD analysis of the dipeptide 1 showed parallel ß-sheet arrangement along the b-direction and head-to-tail arrangement of such ß-sheets along the c-direction. This head-to-tail arrangement along the c-direction places the complementary reacting motifs, viz., azide and alkyne, of adjacent molecules in proximity. The crystals of dipeptide 1, upon heating at 85 °C, underwent crystal-to-crystal polymerization, giving 1,4-triazole-linked pseudo-proteins. This TAAC polymerization was investigated by various time-dependent techniques, such as NMR, IR, DSC, and PXRD. The crystal-to-crystal nature of this transformation was revealed from polarizing microscopy and PXRD experiments, and the regiospecificity of triazole formation was evidenced from various NMR techniques. The MALDI-TOF spectrum showed the presence of pseudo-proteins >7 kDa.