Mapping the density of scattering centers limiting the electron mean free path in graphene.

Recently, giant carrier mobility µ (>10(5) cm(2) V(-1) s(-1)) and micrometer electron mean free path (l) have been measured in suspended graphene or in graphene encapsulated between inert and ultraflat BN layers. Much lower µ values (10000-20000 cm(2) V(-1) s(-1)) are typically reported in graphene on common substrates (SiO(2), SiC) used for device fabrication. The debate on the factors limiting graphene electron mean free path is still open with charged impurities (CI) and resonant scatterers (RS) indicated as the most probable candidates. As a matter of fact, the inhomogeneous distribution of such scattering sources in graphene is responsible of nanoscale lateral inhomogeneities in the electronic properties, which could affect the behavior of graphene nanodevices. Hence, high resolution two-dimensional (2D) mapping of their density is very important. Here, we used scanning capacitance microscopy/spectroscopy to obtain 2D maps of l in graphene on substrates with different dielectric permittivities, that is, SiO(2) (κ(SiO2) = 3.9), 4H-SiC (0001) (κ(SiC) = 9.7) and the very-high-κ perovskite strontium titanate, SrTiO(3) (001), briefly STO (κ(STO) = 330). After measuring l versus the gate bias V(g) on an array of points on graphene, maps of the CI density (N(CI)) have been determined by the neutrality point shift from V(g) = 0 V in each curve, whereas maps of the RS density (N(RS)) have been extracted by fitting the dependence of l on the carrier density (n). Laterally inhomogeneous densities of CI and RS have been found. The RS distribution exhibits an average value ∼3 × 10(10) cm(-2) independently on the substrate. For the first time, a clear correlation between the minima in the l map and the maxima in the N(CI) map is obtained for graphene on SiO(2) and 4H-SiC, indicating that CI are the main source of the lateral inhomogeneity of l. On the contrary, the l and N(CI) maps are uncorrelated in graphene on STO, while a clear correlation is found between l and N(RS) maps. This demonstrates a very efficient dielectric screening of CI in graphene on STO and the role of RS as limiting factor for electron mean free path.

Nanoscale characterization of electrical transport at metal/3C-SiC interfaces.

In this work, the transport properties of metal/3C-SiC interfaces were monitored employing a nanoscale characterization approach in combination with conventional electrical measurements. In particular, using conductive atomic force microscopy allowed demonstrating that the stacking fault is the most pervasive, electrically active extended defect at 3C-SiC(111) surfaces, and it can be electrically passivated by an ultraviolet irradiation treatment. For the Au/3C-SiC Schottky interface, a contact area dependence of the Schottky barrier height (ΦB) was found even after this passivation, indicating that there are still some electrically active defects at the interface. Improved electrical properties were observed in the case of the Pt/3C-SiC system. In this case, annealing at 500°C resulted in a reduction of the leakage current and an increase of the Schottky barrier height (from 0.77 to 1.12 eV). A structural analysis of the reaction zone carried out by transmission electron microscopy [TEM] and X-ray diffraction showed that the improved electrical properties can be attributed to a consumption of the surface layer of SiC due to silicide (Pt2Si) formation. The degradation of Schottky characteristics at higher temperatures (up to 900°C) could be ascribed to the out-diffusion and aggregation of carbon into clusters, observed by TEM analysis.

Scanning tip measurement for identification of point defects.

Self-assembled iron-silicide nanostructures were prepared by reactive deposition epitaxy of Fe onto silicon. Capacitance-voltage, current-voltage, and deep level transient spectroscopy (DLTS) were used to measure the electrical properties of Au/silicon Schottky junctions. Spreading resistance and scanning probe capacitance microscopy (SCM) were applied to measure local electrical properties. Using a preamplifier the sensitivity of DLTS was increased satisfactorily to measure transients of the scanning tip semiconductor junction. In the Fe-deposited area, Fe-related defects dominate the surface layer in about 0.5 µm depth. These defects deteriorated the Schottky junction characteristic. Outside the Fe-deposited area, Fe-related defect concentration was identified in a thin layer near the surface. The defect transients in this area were measured both in macroscopic Schottky junctions and by scanning tip DLTS and were detected by bias modulation frequency dependence in SCM.

Lateral homogeneity of the electronic properties in pristine and ion-irradiated graphene probed by scanning capacitance spectroscopy.

In this article, a scanning probe method based on nanoscale capacitance measurements was used to investigate the lateral homogeneity of the electron mean free path both in pristine and ion-irradiated graphene. The local variations in the electronic transport properties were explained taking into account the scattering of electrons by charged impurities and point defects (vacancies). Electron mean free path is mainly limited by charged impurities in unirradiated graphene, whereas an important role is played by lattice vacancies after irradiation. The local density of the charged impurities and vacancies were determined for different irradiated ion fluences.

Scanning Probe Microscopy on heterogeneous CaCu3Ti4O12 thin films.

The conductive atomic force microscopy provided a local characterization of the dielectric heterogeneities in CaCu3Ti4O12 (CCTO) thin films deposited by MOCVD on IrO2 bottom electrode. In particular, both techniques have been employed to clarify the role of the inter- and sub-granular features in terms of conductive and insulating regions. The microstructure and the dielectric properties of CCTO thin films have been studied and the evidence of internal barriers in CCTO thin films has been provided. The role of internal barriers and the possible explanation for the extrinsic origin of the giant dielectric response in CCTO has been evaluated.

Near-surface processing on AlGaN/GaN heterostructures: a nanoscale electrical and structural characterization.

The effects of near-surface processing on the properties of AlGaN/GaN heterostructures were studied, combining conventional electrical characterization on high-electron mobility transistors (HEMTs), with advanced characterization techniques with nanometer scale resolution, i.e., transmission electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy (AFM) and conductive atomic force microscopy (C-AFM). In particular, a CHF3-based plasma process in the gate region resulted in a shift of the threshold voltage in HEMT devices towards less negative values. Two-dimensional current maps acquired by C-AFM on the sample surface allowed us to monitor the local electrical modifications induced by the plasma fluorine incorporated in the material.The results are compared with a recently introduced gate control processing: the local rapid thermal oxidation process of the AlGaN layer. By this process, a controlled thin oxide layer on surface of AlGaN can be reliably introduced while the resistance of the layer below increase locally.

Nanoscale electro-structural characterisation of ohmic contacts formed on p-type implanted 4H-SiC.

This work reports a nanoscale electro-structural characterisation of Ti/Al ohmic contacts formed on p-type Al-implanted silicon carbide (4H-SiC). The morphological and the electrical properties of the Al-implanted layer, annealed at 1700°C with or without a protective capping layer, and of the ohmic contacts were studied using atomic force microscopy [AFM], transmission line model measurements and local current measurements performed with conductive AFM.The characteristics of the contacts were significantly affected by the roughness of the underlying SiC. In particular, the surface roughness of the Al-implanted SiC regions annealed at 1700°C could be strongly reduced using a protective carbon capping layer during annealing. This latter resulted in an improved surface morphology and specific contact resistance of the Ti/Al ohmic contacts formed on these regions. The microstructure of the contacts was monitored by X-ray diffraction analysis and a cross-sectional transmission electron microscopy, and correlated with the electrical results.

Microscopic study of electrical properties of CrSi2 nanocrystals in silicon.

Semiconducting CrSi2 nanocrystallites (NCs) were grown by reactive deposition epitaxy of Cr onto n-type silicon and covered with a 50-nm epitaxial silicon cap. Two types of samples were investigated: in one of them, the NCs were localized near the deposition depth, and in the other they migrated near the surface. The electrical characteristics were investigated in Schottky junctions by current-voltage and capacitance-voltage measurements. Atomic force microscopy (AFM), conductive AFM and scanning probe capacitance microscopy (SCM) were applied to reveal morphology and local electrical properties. The scanning probe methods yielded specific information, and tapping-mode AFM has shown up to 13-nm-high large-area protrusions not seen in the contact-mode AFM. The electrical interaction of the vibrating scanning tip results in virtual deformation of the surface. SCM has revealed NCs deep below the surface not seen by AFM. The electrically active probe yielded significantly better spatial resolution than AFM. The conductive AFM measurements have shown that the Cr-related point defects near the surface are responsible for the leakage of the macroscopic Schottky junctions, and also that NCs near the surface are sensitive to the mechanical and electrical stress induced by the scanning probe.

Nanoscale structural characterization of epitaxial graphene grown on off-axis 4H-SiC (0001).

In this work, we present a nanometer resolution structural characterization of epitaxial graphene (EG) layers grown on 4H-SiC (0001) 8° off-axis, by annealing in inert gas ambient (Ar) in a wide temperature range (Tgr from 1600 to 2000°C). For all the considered growth temperatures, few layers of graphene (FLG) conformally covering the 100 to 200-nm wide terraces of the SiC surface have been observed by high-resolution cross-sectional transmission electron microscopy (HR-XTEM). Tapping mode atomic force microscopy (t-AFM) showed the formation of wrinkles with approx. 1 to 2 nm height and 10 to 20 nm width in the FLG film, as a result of the release of the compressive strain, which builds up in FLG during the sample cooling due to the thermal expansion coefficients mismatch between graphene and SiC. While for EG grown on on-axis 4H-SiC an isotropic mesh-like network of wrinkles interconnected into nodes is commonly reported, in the present case of a vicinal SiC surface, wrinkles are preferentially oriented in the direction perpendicular to the step edges of the SiC terraces. For each Tgr, the number of graphene layers was determined on very small sample areas by HR-XTEM and, with high statistics and on several sample positions, by measuring the depth of selectively etched trenches in FLG by t-AFM. Both the density of wrinkles and the number of graphene layers are found to increase almost linearly as a function of the growth temperature in the considered temperature range.

Nanoscale electrical probing of heterogeneous ceramics: the case of giant permittivity calcium copper titanate (CaCu3Ti4O12).

Scanning Probe Microscopy with conductive tips has been used to image and study the dielectric properties of giant permittivity CaCu3Ti4O12 ceramics at the nanoscale. Since measurements are generally carried out on sections of a sample, particular attention has been devoted to possible artefacts due to surface imperfections, such as substantial surface roughness and/or contamination that can result in controversial interpretation, particularly at nanometric spatial dimensions. A reliable surface investigation has been carried out after the definition of both the physical and geometrical unbiased criteria to avoid any artefacts due to surface roughness and/or anomalous tip-sample contact variations. The presence of insulating grain boundaries and the measurement of a depletion layer at the grain-grain boundary interfaces unambiguously demonstrate the relevance of the Internal Barrier Layer Capacitor effect, among all the proposed physical mechanisms, to explain the giant dielectric behaviour. Such imaging provided a clear correlation between the macroscopic dielectric properties and the nanometric structure at the interfaces. Moreover, the "general criteria" for reliable nanoelectrical characterization as well as the related measurement resolution have been defined.

Calcium copper-titanate thin film growth: tailoring of the operational conditions through nanocharacterization and substrate nature effects.

A novel approach based on a molten multicomponent precursor source has been applied for the MOCVD fabrication of high-quality CaCu(3)Ti(4)O(12) (CCTO) thin films on various substrates. The adopted in situ strategy involves a molten mixture consisting of Ca(hfa)(2).tetraglyme, Ti(tmhd)(2)(O-iPr)(2), and Cu(tmhd)(2) [Hhfa = 1,1,1,5,5,5-hexafluoro-2,4-pentanedione; tetraglyme = 2,5,8,11,14-pentaoxapentadecane; Htmhd = 2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-3,5-heptandione; O-iPr = isopropoxide] precursors. Film structural and morphological characterizations have been carried out by several techniques [X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM)], and in particular the energy filtered TEM mapping and X-ray energy dispersive (EDX) analysis in TEM mode provided a suitable correlation between nanostructural properties of CCTO films and deposition conditions and/or the substrate nature. Correlation between the nanostructure and optical/dielectric properties has been investigated exploiting spectroscopic ellipsometry.