Solution Combustion Synthesis and Characterization of Magnesium Copper Vanadates.

Magnesium vanadate (MgV2O6) and its alloys with copper vanadate were synthesized via the solution combustion technique. Phase purity and solid solution formation were confirmed by a variety of experimental techniques, supported by electronic structure simulations based on density functional theory (DFT). Powder X-ray diffraction combined with Rietveld refinement, laser Raman spectroscopy, diffuse reflectance spectroscopy, and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy showed single-phase alloy formation despite the MgV2O6 and CuV2O6 end members exhibiting monoclinic and triclinic crystal systems, respectively. DFT-calculated optical band gaps showed close agreement in the computed optical bandgaps with experimentally derived values. Surface photovoltage spectroscopy, ambient-pressure photoemission spectroscopy, and Kelvin probe contact potential difference (work function) measurements confirmed a systematic variation in the optical bandgap modification and band alignment as a function of stoichiometry in the alloy composition. These data indicated n-type semiconductor behavior for all the samples which was confirmed by photoelectrochemical measurements.

Tuning Interfacial Chemistry to Direct the Electrosynthesis of Metal Oxide Semiconductors.

ConspectusMetal oxide semiconductors have many features that make them attractive for both fundamental and applied studies. For example, these compounds contain elements (e.g., Fe, Cu, Ti, etc.) that are derived from minerals rendering them earth-abundant and, most often, are also not toxic. Therefore, they have been examined for possible applicability in a very diverse range of technological applications including photovoltaic solar cells, charge storage devices, displays, smart windows, touch screens, etc. The fact that metal oxide semiconductors have both n- and p-type conductivity makes them amenable for use as hetero- or homojunctions in microelectronic devices and as photoelectrodes in solar water-splitting devices. This Account presents a review of collaborative research on the electrosynthesis of metal oxides from our respective groups against the backdrop of key developments on this topic. The many variants that interfacial chemical modification schemes offer are shown herein to lead to the targeted synthesis of a wide array of not only simple binary metal oxides but also more complex chemistries involving multinary compound semiconductors and alloys.This Account presents our perspective on how parallel developments in the understanding of and ability to manipulate electrode-electrolyte interfaces have correspondingly enabled the innovation of a broad array of electrosynthetic strategies. These coupled with the advent of versatile tools to probe interfacial processes (undoubtedly, a child of the nanotechnology "revolution") afford an operando examination of how effective the strategies are to secure the targeted metal oxide product as well as the mechanistic nuances. Flow electrosynthesis, for example, removes many of the complications accruing from the accumulation of interfering side products─veritably, this is an Achilles heel of the electrosynthesis approach. Coupling flow electrosynthesis with downstream analysis tools based on spectroscopic or electroanalytical probes opens up the possibility of immediate process feedback and optimization. The combination of electrosynthesis, stripping voltammetry, and electrochemical quartz crystal nanogravimetry (EQCN), either in a static or in a dynamic (flow) platform, is shown below to offer intriguing possibilities for metal oxide electrosynthesis. While many of the examples below are based on our current and recent research and in other laboratories, unlocking even more potential will hinge on future refinements and innovations that surely are around the corner.

Arc Synthesis, Crystal Structure, and Photoelectrochemistry of Copper(I) Tungstate.

A little-studied p-type ternary oxide semiconductor, copper(I) tungstate (Cu2WO4), was assessed by a combined theoretical/experimental approach. A detailed computational study was performed to solve the long-standing debate on the space group of Cu2WO4, which was determined to be triclinic P1. Cu2WO4 was synthesized by a time-efficient, arc-melting method, and the crystalline reddish particulate product showed broad-band absorption in the UV-visible spectral region, thermal stability up to ∼260 °C, and cathodic photoelectrochemical activity. Controlled thermal oxidation of copper from the Cu(I) to Cu(II) oxidation state showed that the crystal lattice could accommodate Cu2+ cations up to ∼260 °C, beyond which the compound was converted to CuO and CuWO4. This process was monitored by powder X-ray diffraction and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The electronic band structure of Cu2WO4 was contrasted with that of the Cu(II) counterpart, CuWO4 using spin-polarized density functional theory (DFT). Finally, the compound Cu2WO4 was determined to have a high-lying (negative potential) conduction band edge underlining its promise for driving energetic photoredox reactions.

Electrodeposition of Silver Vanadate Films: A Tale of Two Polymorphs.

Two polymorphs of AgVO3 , namely the α- and ß- forms, were prepared and their physical, structural, optical, electrochemical, and photoelectrochemical characteristics were compared using a battery of experimental and theoretical tools. A two-step method, previously developed in the our laboratory for the electrodeposition of inorganic semiconductor films, was applied to the electrosynthesis of silver vanadate (AgVO3 ) films on transparent, conducting oxide surfaces. In the first step, silver was cathodically deposited from a non-aqueous bath containing silver nitrate. In the second step, the silver film was anodically stripped in an aqueous medium containing ammonium metavanadate. The anodically generated silver ions at the interface underwent a precipitation reaction with the vanadate species to generate the desired product in situ. Each of these steps were mechanistically corroborated via the use of electrochemical quartz crystal microgravimetry, used in conjunction with voltammetry and coulometry. As-deposited films were crystalline and showed p-type semiconductor behavior. Theoretical insights are provided for the electronic origin of the αâ†’ß phase transformation in AgVO3 and the disparate optical band gaps of the two polymorphs. Finally, implications for the application of this material in solar cells are provided.

Role of f Electrons in the Optical and Photoelectrochemical Behavior of Ca(La1- xCe x)2S4 (0 ≤ x ≤ 1).

This study focuses on a solid solution series, Ca(La1- xCe x)2S4 (0 ≤ x ≤ 1), where the f electron density is absent in CaLa2S4 and is progressively increased until it is maximized in CaCe2S4. Correspondingly, these samples, synthesized by a sealed ampule method, showed progressive variations in color ranging from gray for CaLa2S4 to orange-red for CaCe2S4. The crystal structural nuances of both the end members and three solid solutions with x = 0.25, 0.50, and 0.75 were established with the complementary use of synchrotron X-ray diffraction and neutron scattering. Interestingly, these data were consistent with a two-phase composition centered around each nominal solid solution stoichiometry. Optical characterization via diffuse reflectance spectroscopy and Tauc analyses showed a shrinking of the energy band gap (from the UV to vis range) when Ce was progressively introduced into the host CaLa2S4 structure. These data were in concert with electronic band structure calculations, using density functional theory, which showed the progressive formation of an intermediate f band when Ce was introduced intro the structure. Photoelectrochemical measurements in an aqueous redox electrolyte, as well as surface photovoltage and Kelvin probe measurements, revealed all samples to be n-type semiconductors. The valence and conduction band edge positions of the end members and the three solid solutions could be mapped, on both the redox and vacuum reference energy scales, by combining these measurements with the optical data.

Improved rate of substrate oxidation catalyzed by genetically-engineered myoglobin.

This study showcases the potential of unnatural amino acids to enable non-natural functions when incorporated in the protein scaffold of heme metalloproteins. For this purpose, a genetically-engineered myoglobin (Mb) mutant was created by incorporating redox-active 3-amino-l-tyrosine (NH2Tyr) into its active site, replacing the distal histidine (H64) with NH2Tyr. In peroxide-shunt assays, this variant exhibits an increased rate of turnover for thioanisole and benzaldehyde oxidation as compared to the wild-type (WT) Mb. Indeed, in the presence of excess hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), a 9-fold and 81-fold increase in activity was observed over multiple turnovers for thioanisole sulfoxidation and benzoic acid formation, respectively. The increased oxidation activity in the H64NH2Tyr Mb mutant underlined the role of NH2Tyr in the distal active-site scaffold in peroxide activation. Kinetic, electrochemical, and EPR spectroscopic experiments were performed. On the basis of these studies, it is argued that the single NH2Tyr residue within the Mb variant simultaneously serves the role of the conserved His/Arg-pair within the distal pocket of horseradish peroxidase.

Enhanced Photoelectrochemical Performance of Cuprous Oxide/Graphene Nanohybrids.

Combination of an oxide semiconductor with a highly conductive nanocarbon framework (such as graphene or carbon nanotubes) is an attractive avenue to assemble efficient photoelectrodes for solar fuel generation. To fully exploit the possible synergies of the hybrid formation, however, precise knowledge of these systems is required to allow rational design and morphological engineering. In this paper, we present the controlled electrochemical deposition of nanocrystalline p-Cu2O on the surface of different graphene substrates. The developed synthetic protocol allowed tuning of the morphological features of the hybrids as deduced from electron microscopy. (Photo)electrochemical measurements (including photovoltammetry, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, photocurrent transient analysis) demonstrated better performance for the 2D graphene containing photoelectrodes, compared to the bare Cu2O films, the enhanced performance being rooted in suppressed charge carrier recombination. To elucidate the precise role of graphene, comparative studies were performed with carbon nanotube (CNT) films and 3D graphene foams. These studies revealed, after allowing for the effect of increased surface area, that the 3D graphene substrate outperformed the other two nanocarbons. Its interconnected structure facilitated effective charge separation and transport, leading to better harvesting of the generated photoelectrons. These hybrid assemblies are shown to be potentially attractive candidates in photoelectrochemical energy conversion schemes, namely CO2 reduction.

Correction: Enhanced photocatalytic activity of a self-stabilized synthetic flavin anchored on a TiO2 surface.

Correction for 'Enhanced photocatalytic activity of a self-stabilized synthetic flavin anchored on a TiO2 surface' by Manjula Pandiri et al., Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 2016, 18, 18575-18583.

Flavin Derivatives with Tailored Redox Properties: Synthesis, Characterization, and Electrochemical Behavior.

This study establishes structure-property relationships for four synthetic flavin molecules as bioinspired redox mediators in electro- and photocatalysis applications. The studied flavin compounds were disubstituted with polar substituents at the N1 and N3 positions (alloxazine) or at the N3 and N10 positions (isoalloxazines). The electrochemical behavior of one such synthetic flavin analogue was examined in detail in aqueous solutions of varying pH in the range from 1 to 10. Cyclic voltammetry, used in conjunction with hydrodynamic (rotating disk electrode) voltammetry, showed quasi-reversible behavior consistent with freely diffusing molecules and an overall global 2e(-) , 2H(+) proton-coupled electron transfer scheme. UV/Vis spectroelectrochemical data was also employed to study the pH-dependent electrochemical behavior of this derivative. Substituent effects on the redox behavior were compared and contrasted for all the four compounds, and visualized within a scatter plot framework to afford comparison with prior knowledge on mostly natural flavins in aqueous media. Finally, a preliminary assessment of one of the synthetic flavins was performed of its electrocatalytic activity toward dioxygen reduction as a prelude to further (quantitative) studies of both freely diffusing and tethered molecules on various electrode surfaces.

Enhanced photocatalytic activity of a self-stabilized synthetic flavin anchored on a TiO2 surface.

Synthetic flavin molecules were anchored on Degussa P25 titanium dioxide (TiO2). The effect of their presence on the photocatalytic (PC) activity of TiO2 was studied. Under UV light, an increase in the degradation rate of ethanol was observed. This increase was accompanied by stabilization of the anchored flavin against self-degradation. The unprecedented stabilization effect was found also in the absence of a reducing agent such as ethanol. In contrast, under the less energetic visible light, fast degradation of the anchored flavin was observed. These rather surprising observations were attributed to the propensity for charge transport from excited flavin molecules to the semiconductor and to the role that such charge transfer may play in stabilizing the overall assembly. Anchored flavins excited by UV light to their S2, S3 electronic states were able to transfer the excited electrons to the TiO2 phase whereas anchored flavin molecules that were excited by visible light to the S1 state were less likely to transfer the photo-excited electrons and therefore were destabilized. These findings may be relevant not only to anchored flavins in general but to other functionalized photocatalysts, and may open up new vistas in the implementation of sensitizers in PC systems.

Polyaniline films photoelectrochemically reduce CO2 to alcohols.

In this communication, we demonstrate that polyaniline, the very first example of an organic semiconductor, is a promising photocathode material for the conversion of carbon dioxide (CO2) to alcohol fuels. CO2 is a greenhouse gas; thus using solar energy to convert CO2 to transportation fuels (such as methanol or ethanol) is a value-added approach to simultaneous generation of alternative fuels and environmental remediation of carbon emissions. Insights into its unique behavior obtained from photoelectrochemical measurements and adsorption studies, together with spectroscopic data, are presented. Through a comparative study involving various conducting polymers, a set of criteria is developed for an organic semiconductor to function as a photocathode for generation of solar fuels from CO2.

Time- and energy-efficient solution combustion synthesis of binary metal tungstate nanoparticles with enhanced photocatalytic activity.

In the search for stable and efficient photocatalysts beyond TiO2 , the tungsten-based oxide semiconductors silver tungstate (Ag2 WO4 ), copper tungstate (CuWO4 ), and zinc tungstate (ZnWO4 ) were prepared using solution combustion synthesis (SCS). The tungsten precursor's influence on the product was of particular relevance to this study, and the most significant effects are highlighted. Each sample's photocatalytic activity towards methyl orange degradation was studied and benchmarked against their respective commercial oxide sample obtained by solid-state ceramic synthesis. Based on the results herein, we conclude that SCS is a time- and energy-efficient method to synthesize crystalline binary tungstate nanomaterials even without additional excessive heat treatment. As many of these photocatalysts possess excellent photocatalytic activity, the discussed synthetic strategy may open sustainable materials chemistry avenues to solar energy conversion and environmental remediation.

Synthesis of Au-BiVO4 nanocomposite through anodic electrodeposition followed by galvanic replacement and its application to the photocatalytic decomposition of methyl orange.

A Au-BiVO(4) nanocomposite is synthesized by a two-step strategy involving anodic electrodeposition combined with in situ galvanic replacement. First, a BiVO(4) layer is prepared by the anodic oxidation of pre-electrodeposited Bi film in a VO(4)(3-) containing electrolyte. Thus-prepared BiVO(4) film contains excess metallic Bi, which is then galvanically replaced with Au from an aqueous HAuCl(4) solution, resulting in the Au-BiVO(4) composite in the second step. Optical, photoelectrochemical and photocatalytic properties are investigated by using X-ray diffraction, energy-dispersive X-ray analysis, diffuse reflectance spectrometry, and photoelectrochemical analyses. The visible-light photocatalytic activity of the Au-BiVO(4) composite is evaluated using the decomposition of methyl orange dye and is superior to the bare BiVO(4) film counterpart.

Tailoring copper oxide semiconductor nanorod arrays for photoelectrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide to methanol.

Solar photoelectrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide to methanol in aqueous media was driven on hybrid CuO/Cu2O semiconductor nanorod arrays for the first time. A two-step synthesis was designed and demonstrated for the preparation of these hybrid copper oxide one-dimensional nanostructures on copper substrates. The first step consisted in the growth of CuO nanorods by thermal oxidation of a copper foil at 400 °C. In the second step, controlled electrodeposition of p-type Cu2O crystallites on the CuO walls was performed. The resulting nanorod morphology with controllable wall thickness by adjusting the Cu2O electrodeposition time as well as their surface/bulk chemical composition were probed by scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction and Raman spectroscopy. Photoelectrosynthesis of methanol from carbon dioxide was demonstrated at -0.2 V vs SHE under simulated AM1.5 solar irradiation on optimized hybrid CuO/Cu2O nanorod electrodes and without assistance of any homogeneous catalyst (such as pyridine or imidazole) in the electrolyte. The hybrid composition, ensuring double pathway for photoelectron injection to CO2, along with high surface area were found to be crucial for efficient performance in methanol generation under solar illumination. Methanol formation, tracked by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry, indicated Faradaic efficiencies of ~95%.

Efficient solar photoelectrosynthesis of methanol from carbon dioxide using hybrid CuO-Cu2O semiconductor nanorod arrays.

Solar photoelectrosynthesis of methanol was driven on hybrid CuO-Cu(2)O semiconductor nanorod arrays for the first time at potentials ~800 mV below the thermodynamic threshold value and at Faradaic efficiencies up to ~95%. The CuO-Cu(2)O nanorod arrays were prepared on Cu substrates by a two-step approach consisting of the initial thermal growth of CuO nanorods followed by controlled electrodeposition of p-type Cu(2)O crystallites on their walls. No homogeneous co-catalysts (such as pyridine, imidazole or metal cyclam complexes) were used contrasting with earlier studies on this topic using p-type semiconductor photocathodes. The roles of the core-shell nanorod electrode geometry and the copper oxide composition were established by varying the time of electrodeposition of the Cu(2)O phase on the CuO nanorod core surface.

Photocatalytic generation of syngas using combustion-synthesized silver bismuth tungstate.

Silver bismuth tungstate (AgBiW(2)O(8)) nanoparticles were prepared for the first time by solution combustion synthesis by using the corresponding metal nitrates as the precursor and urea as the fuel. These nanoparticles were subsequently modified with Pt catalyst islands using a photocatalytic procedure and used for the photogeneration of syngas (CO+H(2)). Formic acid was used for this purpose for the in situ generation of CO(2) and its subsequent reduction to CO. In the absence of Pt modification, H(2) was not obtained in the gas products evolved. These results were compared with those obtained with acetic acid in place of formic acid. The combustion process was simulated by thermogravimetry and the synthesized powder was characterized using transmission electron microscopy, diffuse reflectance UV/Vis spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, surface area measurements, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Tauc plots derived from the diffuse reflectance data yielded an optical band gap of 2.74 eV. The photocatalytic activity of these nanoparticles was superior to a sample prepared by solid-state synthesis. Mechanistic aspects are finally presented, as are structural models and electronic calculations, using density functional theory (DFT).

Biosynthetic approach for functional protein microarrays.

Protein microarrays have emerged as an indispensable research tool for providing information about protein functions and interactions through high-throughput screening. Traditional methods for immobilizing biomolecules onto solid surfaces have been based on covalent and noncovalent binding, entrapment in semipermeable membranes, microencapsulation, sol gel, and hydrogel methods. Each of these techniques has its own strengths but fails to combine the most important tenets of a functional protein microarray such as covalent attachment, native protein conformation, homogeneity of the protein monolayer, control over active site orientation, and retention of protein activity. Here we present a selective and site-directed covalent immobilization technique for proteins via a benzoxazine ring formation through a Diels-Alder reaction in water and a genetically encoded 3-amino-L-tyrosine (3-NH(2)Tyr) amino acid. Fully functional protein microarrays, with monolayer arrangements and complete control over their orientations, were generated using this strategy.