Phylogenetic diversity and the structure of host-epiphyte interactions across the Neotropics.

Understanding the mechanisms driving community assembly has been a major focus of ecological research for nearly a century, yet little is known about these mechanisms in commensal communities, particularly with respect to their historical/evolutionary components. Here, we use a large-scale dataset of 4,440 vascular plant species to explore the relationship between the evolutionary distinctiveness (ED) (as measured by the 'species evolutionary history' (SEH)) of host species and the phylogenetic diversity (PD) of their associated epiphyte species. Although there was considerable variation across hosts and their associated epiphyte species, they were largely unrelated to host SEH. Our results mostly support the idea that the determinants of epiphyte colonization success might involve host characteristics that are unrelated to host SEH (e.g., architectural differences between hosts). While determinants of PD of epiphyte assemblages are poorly known, they do not appear to be related to the evolutionary history of host species. Instead, they might be better explained by neutral processes of colonization and extinction. However, the high level of phylogenetic signal in epiphyte PD (independent of SEH) suggests it might still be influenced by yet unrecognized evolutionary determinants. This study highlights how little is still known about the phylogenetic determinants of epiphyte communities.

FragSAD: A database of diversity and species abundance distributions from habitat fragments.

Habitat destruction is the single greatest anthropogenic threat to biodiversity. Decades of research on this issue have led to the accumulation of hundreds of data sets comparing species assemblages in larger, intact, habitats to smaller, more fragmented, habitats. Despite this, little synthesis or consensus has been achieved, primarily because of non-standardized sampling methodology and analyses of notoriously scale-dependent response variables (i.e., species richness). To be able to compare and contrast the results of habitat fragmentation on species' assemblages, it is necessary to have the underlying data on species abundances and sampling intensity, so that standardization can be achieved. To accomplish this, we systematically searched the literature for studies where abundances of species in assemblages (of any taxa) were sampled from many habitat patches that varied in size. From these, we extracted data from several studies, and contacted authors of studies where appropriate data were collected but not published, giving us 117 studies that compared species assemblages among habitat fragments that varied in area. Less than one-half (41) of studies came from tropical forests of Central and South America, but there were many studies from temperate forests and grasslands from all continents except Antarctica. Fifty-four of the studies were on invertebrates (mostly insects), but there were several studies on plants (15), birds (16), mammals (19), and reptiles and amphibians (13). We also collected qualitative information on the length of time since fragmentation. With data on total and relative abundances (and identities) of species, sampling effort, and affiliated meta-data about the study sites, these data can be used to more definitively test hypotheses about the role of habitat fragmentation in altering patterns of biodiversity. There are no copyright restrictions. Please cite this data paper and the associated Dryad data set if the data are used in publications.

ATLANTIC EPIPHYTES: a data set of vascular and non-vascular epiphyte plants and lichens from the Atlantic Forest.

Epiphytes are hyper-diverse and one of the frequently undervalued life forms in plant surveys and biodiversity inventories. Epiphytes of the Atlantic Forest, one of the most endangered ecosystems in the world, have high endemism and radiated recently in the Pliocene. We aimed to (1) compile an extensive Atlantic Forest data set on vascular, non-vascular plants (including hemiepiphytes), and lichen epiphyte species occurrence and abundance; (2) describe the epiphyte distribution in the Atlantic Forest, in order to indicate future sampling efforts. Our work presents the first epiphyte data set with information on abundance and occurrence of epiphyte phorophyte species. All data compiled here come from three main sources provided by the authors: published sources (comprising peer-reviewed articles, books, and theses), unpublished data, and herbarium data. We compiled a data set composed of 2,095 species, from 89,270 holo/hemiepiphyte records, in the Atlantic Forest of Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguay, recorded from 1824 to early 2018. Most of the records were from qualitative data (occurrence only, 88%), well distributed throughout the Atlantic Forest. For quantitative records, the most common sampling method was individual trees (71%), followed by plot sampling (19%), and transect sampling (10%). Angiosperms (81%) were the most frequently registered group, and Bromeliaceae and Orchidaceae were the families with the greatest number of records (27,272 and 21,945, respectively). Ferns and Lycophytes presented fewer records than Angiosperms, and Polypodiaceae were the most recorded family, and more concentrated in the Southern and Southeastern regions. Data on non-vascular plants and lichens were scarce, with a few disjunct records concentrated in the Northeastern region of the Atlantic Forest. For all non-vascular plant records, Lejeuneaceae, a family of liverworts, was the most recorded family. We hope that our effort to organize scattered epiphyte data help advance the knowledge of epiphyte ecology, as well as our understanding of macroecological and biogeographical patterns in the Atlantic Forest. No copyright restrictions are associated with the data set. Please cite this Ecology Data Paper if the data are used in publication and teaching events.

Agricultural matrices affect ground ant assemblage composition inside forest fragments.

The establishment of agricultural matrices generally involves deforestation, which leads to fragmentation of the remaining forest. This fragmentation can affect forest dynamics both positively and negatively. Since most animal species are affected, certain groups can be used to measure the impact of such fragmentation. This study aimed to measure the impacts of agricultural crops (matrices) on ant communities of adjacent lower montane Atlantic rainforest fragments. We sampled nine forest fragments at locations surrounded by different agricultural matrices, namely: coffee (3 replicates); sugarcane (3); and pasture (3). At each site we installed pitfall traps along a 500 m transect from the interior of the matrix to the interior of the fragment (20 pitfall traps ~25 m apart). Each transect was partitioned into four categories: interior of the matrix; edge of the matrix; edge of the fragment; and interior of the fragment. For each sample site, we measured ant species richness and ant community composition within each transect category. Ant richness and composition differed between fragments and matrices. Each sample location had a specific composition of ants, probably because of the influence of the nature and management of the agricultural matrices. Species composition in the coffee matrix had the highest similarity to its corresponding fragment. The variability in species composition within forest fragments surrounded by pasture was greatest when compared with forest fragments surrounded by sugarcane or, to a lesser extent, coffee. Functional guild composition differed between locations, but the most representative guild was 'generalist' both in the agricultural matrices and forest fragments. Our results are important for understanding how agricultural matrices act on ant communities, and also, how these isolated forest fragments could act as an island of biodiversity in an 'ocean of crops'.

Anthropogenic Matrices Favor Homogenization of Tree Reproductive Functions in a Highly Fragmented Landscape.

Species homogenization or floristic differentiation are two possible consequences of the fragmentation process in plant communities. Despite the few studies, it seems clear that fragments with low forest cover inserted in anthropogenic matrices are more likely to experience floristic homogenization. However, the homogenization process has two other components, genetic and functional, which have not been investigated. The purpose of this study was to verify whether there was homogenization of tree reproductive functions in a fragmented landscape and, if found, to determine how the process was influenced by landscape composition. The study was conducted in eight fragments in southwest Brazil. The study was conducted in eight fragments in southwestern Brazil. In each fragment, all individual trees were sampled that had a diameter at breast height ≥3 cm, in ten plots (0.2 ha) and, classified within 26 reproductive functional types (RFTs). The process of functional homogenization was evaluated using additive partitioning of diversity. Additionally, the effect of landscape composition on functional diversity and on the number of individuals within each RFT was evaluated using a generalized linear mixed model. appeared to be in a process of functional homogenization (dominance of RFTs, alpha diversity lower than expected by chance and and low beta diversity). More than 50% of the RFTs and the functional diversity were affected by the landscape parameters. In general, the percentage of forest cover has a positive effect on RFTs while the percentage of coffee matrix has a negative one. The process of functional homogenization has serious consequences for biodiversity conservation because some functions may disappear that, in the long term, would threaten the fragments. This study contributes to a better understanding of how landscape changes affect the functional diversity, abundance of individuals in RFTs and the process of functional homogenization, as well as how to manage fragmented landscapes.

Efeito do tamanho do fragmento na dispersão de sementes de Copaíba (Copaifera langsdorffii Delf.) / Effect of fragment size on Copaifera langsdorffii seeds dispersal

A fragmentação de habitats pode afetar negativamente a relação mutualística entre plantas e animais, se estes tornarem-se localmente extintos nos fragmentos. No decorrer do processo de fragmentação há evidências de substituição de espécies especialistas por generalistas, adotando também sua função no ecossistema. Nós estudamos a frugivoria de Copaifera langsdorfii por aves para avaliar o efeito do tamanho do fragmento no potencial de dispersão das suas sementes. Durante o ano de 2008 foram selecionadas vinte plantas focais distribuídas em cinco remanescentes de Mata Atlântica (amplitude 29,2 a 104,8 ha) para descrever o comportamento de forrageamento de aves consumidoras e avaliar o potencial de dispersão de sementes de cada espécie através do método de observação focal. O potencial de dispersão variou entre as espécies, juntamente com o padrão de distribuição e abundância nos diferentes fragmentos. O tamanho dos fragmentos afetou positivamente o número de interações de espécies com bom potencial de dispersão (R2 = 0,85; p = 0,05). A riqueza de espécies com má qualidade de dispersão foi negativamente afetada pelo tamanho do fragmento, mas com significância marginal (R2 = 0,77; p= 0,08). Portanto a preservação de fragmentos de maior tamanho garante mais eventos de interação entre a C. langsdorfii e seus bons dispersores, e consequentemente favorece seu sucesso reprodutivo.

Effect of fragment size on Copaifera langsdorffii seed dispersal. Habitat fragmentation may cause functional disruption in seed dispersal, if the disperser species become locally extinct in the fragments. However during the fragmentation process, there is empirical evidence of replacement of specialist by generalist species, and these generalist species could also replace the functional activity of the specialists in the ecosystem. We studied bird frugivory on C. langsdorffii in order to evaluate the patch size effect on the potential of seed dispersal of this plant. During 2008 we chose 20 focal trees distributed in five Atlantic forest remnants (range 29.2 to 104.8 ha), looking for which bird species consumed the fruits, describing their foraging behavior and consequently evaluating the potential for seed dispersal. The results suggest that there was lower similarity of bird richness among the patches. The ability to disperse seeds also varied among birds and their patterns of distribution and abundance were related with patch size. The number of good disperser species and their interactions were positively related with patch size (R2 = 0.85; p = 0.05); in contrast, the poor dispersers had the opposite tendency (R2 = 0.77; p=0.08). Therefore the preservation of larger patch size increases the interaction events between C. langsdorffii and their good dispersers, and consequently improving their fitness.

Genetic structure of tree and shrubby species among anthropogenic edges, natural edges, and interior of an atlantic forest fragment.

Two species, Psychotria tenuinervis (shrub, Rubiaceae) and Guarea guidonia (tree, Meliaceae), were used as models to compare the genetic structure of tree and shrubby species among natural edges, anthropogenic edges, and a fragment interior. There were significant differences between two genetic markers. For isozymes, P. tenuinervis presented greater heterozygosity (expected and observed) and a higher percentage of polymorphic loci and median number of alleles than G. guidonia. For microsatellites, there was no difference in genetic variability between the species. Only P. tenuinervis, for isozymes, showed differences in genetic variability among the three habitats. There was no genetic structure (F (ST) < 0.05) among habitats in both plant species for both genetic markers. Isozymes showed great endogamy for both plant species, but not microsatellites. The forest fragmentation may have negative effects on both spatial (among edges and interior) and temporal genetic variability.

Mating systems of Psychotria tenuinervis (Rubiaceae): distance from anthropogenic and natural edges of Atlantic forest fragment.

The aim of this study was to determine and compare the mating systems among Psychotria tenuinervis populations at anthropogenic edges, natural edges, and the forest interior using allozyme electrophoresis of naturally pollinated progeny arrays. P. tenuinervis showed low outcrossing rates, varying from 37% to 50% of the mating attributable to outcrossing and 50% to 63% attributable to self-fertilization, in the three habitats. The forest interior had the highest outcrossing rate (t(m) = 0.50 and t(s) = 0.43) among the three habitats. However, there were no differences in either multilocus or single-locus rates among the three habitats, indicating that the contribution of biparental inbreeding to the apparent selfing rate in these populations was very low. The multilocus (t(m)) and single-locus (t(s)) outcrossing rates for the P. tenuinervis in the sample plots within each habitat showed great heterogeneity. In conclusion, edge creation seems not to influence its mating systems. Additionally, although P. tenuinervis is a distylous species, the population's inbreeding can be attributed almost entirely to self-fertilization.

Quality of seeds produced by Psychotria tenuinervis (Rubiaceae): distance from anthropogenic and natural edges of Atlantic forest fragment.

The aim of this study was to investigate whether there were differences in the genetic variability and rate and velocity of the seed germination produced by Psychotria tenuinervis located at anthropogenic edges, natural edges, and in the forest interior. The populations of P. tenuinervis showed no differences in genetic variability or structure among the three habitats. There was, however, an indication of inbreeding, which was significantly higher in natural edges than in anthropogenic edges and the forest interior. Within-habitat variation was considerable, but there were no differences in seed mass or rate and velocity of germination among the three habitats. These results suggest that seed characteristics were not influenced by the genetic pattern of P. tenuinervis and that other characteristics of the forest fragment, such as gaps, edge age, and type of matrix exert more influence on seed mass and germination than the distance from the edges.

Microclimate of Atlantic forest fragments: regional and local scale heterogeneity

The aim of this work was to investigate whether (i) the organisms within different fragments, on regional scale (separated by up to 100 km), could be submitted to similar climatic conditions (rainfall and temperature), and whether (ii) the edge formation in forest fragments could stimulate microclimatic changes (canopy cover, air temperature and soil humidity), on local scale. The organisms within different fragments, on regional scale, were submitted to different climatic conditions, and the edge formation in the forest fragment stimulated microclimatic changes, on local scale, although in a heterogenic way. Not just the distance from the edge influenced the microclimatic differences. Probably, the edge age, location, the matrix structure, as well as, gap proximity could change the microclimatic even within edges.

O objetivo deste trabalho foi investigar se (i) os organismos dentro de diferentes fragmentos, em escala regional (separados por até 100 km), podem ser submetidos a condições climáticas similares (pluviosidade e temperatura) e se (ii) a formação de borda em fragmentos florestais pode estimular mudanças microclimáticas (abertura de dossel, temperatura do ar e umidade do solo), em escala regional. O estudo foi conduzido em cinco fragmentos (escala regional) no Rio de Janeiro, sudeste do Brasil, e em escala local, dentro de um deles. Os organismos dentro dos diferentes fragmentos, em escala regional, foram submetidos a diferentes condições climáticas, e a formação de borda nos fragmentos florestais estimulou mudanças climáticas, de maneira heterogênea. Não apenas a distância das bordas tem influencia nas diferenças microclimáticas. Provávelmente, a idade e localização da borda, a estrutura da matriz, assim como a proximidade de clareiras pode modificar o microclima mesmo entre bordas.