Extracellular acidosis stimulates breast cancer cell motility through aryl hydrocarbon receptor and c-src kinase activation.

A reduction in extracellular pH (pHe) is a characteristic of most malignant tumors. The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is a transcription factor localized in a cytosolic complex with c-Src, which allows it to trigger nongenomic effects through c-Src. Considering that the slightly acidic tumor microenvironment promotes breast cancer progression in a similar way to the AhR/c-Src axis, our aim was to evaluate whether this pathway could be activated by low pHe. We examined the effect of pHe 6.5 on AhR/c-Src axis using two breast cancer cell lines (MDA-MB-231 and LM3) and mammary epithelial cells (NMuMG) and found that acidosis increased c-Src phosphorylation only in tumor cells. Moreover, the presence of AhR inhibitors prevented c-Src activation. Low pHe reduced intracellular pH (pHi), while amiloride treatment, which is known to reduce pHi, induced c-Src phosphorylation through AhR. Analyses were conducted on cell migration and metalloproteases (MMP)-2 and -9 activities, with results showing an acidosis-induced increase in MDA-MB-231 and LM3 cell migration and MMP-9 activity, but no changes in NMuMG cells. Moreover, all these effects were blocked by AhR and c-Src inhibitors. In conclusion, acidosis stimulates the AhR/c-Src axis only in breast cancer cells, increasing cell migration and MMP-9 activity. Although the AhR activation mechanism still remains elusive, a reduction in pHi may be thought to be involved. These findings suggest a critical role for the AhR/c-Src axis in breast tumor progression stimulated by an acidic microenvironment.

El hexaclorobenceno como factor de riesgo en el cáncer de mama / Hexachlorobenzene as a risk factor in breast cancer

Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) is a widespread environmental pollutant and an endocrine disruptor. Chronic exposure of humans to HCB elicits porphyria, neurologic symptoms, immune disorders and thyroid dysfunctions. It is a dioxin-like compound and a weak ligand of the AhR (aryl hydrocarbon receptor), a transcription factor that modulates genes related to detoxification, proliferation, migration and invasion. This study was carried out to revise the results of HCB action on mammary gland and breast cancer, summarizing the main ideas of its mechanism of action. HCB increases tumor development and active c-Src/EGFR (epidermal growth factor receptor) signaling pathways, while reducing tyrosine537-ER-alpha (estrogen receptor-alpha) phosphorylation, and promoting a phenotype with enhanced malignancy and lung metastasis in different animal models. In a rat mammary gland, HCB promotes an estrogenic microenvironment by activation of ER-alpha and Insulin/IGFs (insulin growth factors) pathways. HCB induces cell proliferation, promoting cell cycle progression and enhancing cyclin D1 expression and c-Src/p27 interaction in (ER-alpha) MCF-7 human breast cancer cell line. In (ER-alpha)(-) MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells, the pesticide enhances cell migration and invasion as well as metalloproteases and TGF-beta1 (transformig growth factor-beta1) expression. In conclusion our current study suggests that alterations in the estrogenic microenvironment may influence the biological behavior of mammary gland or breast tumors, leading to preneoplastic lesions or enhanced malignancy, respectively. Our findings suggest that HCB may be a risk factor for human breast cancer progression.

El hexaclorobenceno (HCB) es un contaminante ambiental ampliamente distribuido y un desorganizador endocrino. Su exposición crónica en seres humanos produce porfiria, síntomas neurológicos, trastornos inmunitarios y disfunciones tiroideas. Es un agonista débil del receptor de hidrocarburos aromáticos (AhR), un factor de transcripción que modula genes relacionados con el metabolismo de xenobióticos, la proliferación, la migración y la invasión. Nuestro objetivo es revisar los efectos del HCB en la glándula mamaria y el cáncer mamario, resumiendo los principales mecanismos de acción. El HCB aumenta el desarrollo tumoral y activa vías de señalización de c-Src/receptor del factor de crecimiento epidérmico (EGFR), mientras que disminuye la fosforilación de tirosina 537/receptor de estrógenos alfa (RE-alfa), promoviendo un fenotipo de mayor malignidad y metástasis pulmonar en diferentes modelos con animales. En la glándula mamaria de rata genera un microambiente estrogénico por activación del RE-alfa y las vías de insulina/factores de crecimiento similares a la insulina (IGF). En células de cáncer mamario humanas MCF-7 (RE-alfa) induce proliferación celular, promoviendo la progresión del ciclo, aumentando la ciclina D1 y la interacción p27/c-Src. En MDA-MB-231 (-RE-alfa) estimula la migración e invasión, así como la expresión de metaloproteasas y factor de crecimiento transformante beta 1 (TGF-beta 1). Estos estudios indican que las alteraciones en el microambiente estrogénico podrían influir el comportamiento biológico de la glándula mamaria y los tumores, lo que provoca lesiones preneoplásicas o aumento en la malignidad tumoral mamaria. Nuestros hallazgos sugieren que el HCB podría ser un factor de riesgo para la progresión del cáncer de mama humano.

Hexachlorobenzene induces cell proliferation, and aryl hydrocarbon receptor expression (AhR) in rat liver preneoplastic foci, and in the human hepatoma cell line HepG2. AhR is a mediator of ERK1/2 signaling, and cell cycle regulation in HCB-treated HepG2 cells.

Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) is a widespread environmental pollutant, and a liver tumor promoter in rodents. Depending on the particular cell lines studied, exposure to these compounds may lead to cell proliferation, terminal differentiation, or apoptosis. The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is a ligand-activated transcription factor that is involved in drug and xenobiotic metabolism. AhR can also modulate a variety of cellular and physiological processes that can affect cell proliferation and cell fate determination. The mechanisms by which AhR ligands, both exogenous and endogenous, affect these processes involve multiple interactions between AhR and other signaling pathways. In the present study, we examined the effect of HCB on cell proliferation and AhR expression, using an initiation-promotion hepatocarcinogenesis protocol in rat liver and in the human-derived hepatoma cell line, HepG2. Female Wistar rats were initiated with a single dose of 100 mg/kg of diethylnitrosamine (DEN) at the start of the experiment. Two weeks later, daily dosing of 100 mg/kg HCB was maintained for 10 weeks. Partial hepatectomy was performed 3 weeks after initiation. The number and area of glutathione S-transferase-P (GST-P)-positive foci, in the rat liver were used as biomarkers of liver precancerous lesions. Immunohistochemical staining showed an increase in proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA)-positive cells, along with enhanced AhR protein expression in hepatocytes within GST-P-positive foci of (DEN HCB) group, when compared to DEN. In a similar manner, Western blot analysis demonstrated that HCB induced PCNA and AhR protein expression in HepG2 cells. Flow cytometry assay indicated that the cells were accumulated at S and G2/M phases of the cell cycle. HCB increased cyclin D1 protein levels and ERK1/2 phosphorylation in a dose-dependent manner. Treatment of cells with a selective MEK1 inhibitor, prevented HCB-stimulatory effect on PCNA and cyclinD1, indicating that these effects are mediated by ERK1/2. Pretreatment with an AhR antagonist, prevented HCB-induced PCNA protein levels, ERK1/2 phosphorylation and alterations in cell cycle distribution. These results demonstrate that HCB-induced HepG2 proliferation and cell cycle progression depend on ERK1/2 phosphorylation which is mediated by the AhR. Our results provide a clue to the molecular events involved in the mechanism of action of HCB-induced hepatocarcinogenesis.

Reactive oxygen species and extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 mediate hexachlorobenzene-induced cell death in FRTL-5 rat thyroid cells.

Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) is an organochlorine pesticide widely distributed in the environment. We have previously shown that chronic HCB exposure triggers apoptosis in rat thyroid follicular cells. This study was carried out to investigate the molecular mechanism by which the pesticide causes apoptosis in FRTL-5 rat thyroid cells exposed to HCB (0.005, 0.05, 0.5, and 5µM) for 2, 6, 8, 24, and 48h. HCB treatment lowered cell viability and induced apoptotic cell death in a dose- and time-dependent manner, as demonstrated by morphological nuclear changes and the increase of DNA fragmentation. The pesticide increased activation of caspases-3, -8, and full-length caspase-10 processing. HCB induced mitochondrial membrane depolarization, release of cytochrome c and apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF), from the mitochondria to the cytosol, and AIF nuclear translocation. Cell death was accompanied by an increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. Blocking of ROS production, with a radical scavenger (Trolox), resulted in inhibition of AIF nuclear translocation and returned cells survival to control levels, demonstrating that ROS are critical mediators of HCB-induced apoptosis. The pesticide increased ERK1/2, JNK, and p38 phosphorylation in a time- and dose-dependent manner. However, when FRTL-5 cells were treated with specific MAPK inhibitors, only blockade of MEK1/2 with PD98059 prevented cell loss of viability, as well as caspase-3 activation. In addition, we demonstrated that HCB-induced production of ROS has a critical role in ERK1/2 activation. These results demonstrate for the first time that HCB induces apoptosis in FRTL-5 cells, by ROS-mediated ERK1/2 activation, through caspase-dependent and -independent pathways.

Hexachlorobenzene induces deregulation of cellular growth in rat liver.

Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) is an organochlorine pesticide widely distributed in the biosphere. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of HCB on the homeostasis of liver cell growth, analyzing parameters of cell proliferation and apoptosis, in HCB (0.1, 1, 10 and 100 mg/kg body weight)-treated rats, during 4 weeks. Cell proliferation and ERK1/2 phosphorylation, associated with survival mechanisms, were increased at HCB 100 mg/kg. The pesticide increased the number of apoptotic cells, and the activation of caspase-3, -9 and -8, in a dose-dependent manner, suggesting that HCB-induced apoptosis is mediated by caspases. Increased Fas and FasL protein levels indicate that the death receptor pathway is also involved. This process is associated with decreased Bid, and increased cytosolic cytochrome c protein levels. Transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-ß1) intervenes in apoptotic and/or proliferative processes in hepatocytes. TGF-ß1 cDNA and protein levels are dose-dependently increased, suggesting that this cytokine might be involved in HCB-induced dysregulation of cell proliferation and apoptosis. In conclusion, this study reports for the first time that HCB induces loss of the homeostatic balance between cell growth and cell death in rat liver. Induced apoptosis occurs by mechanisms involving signals emanating from death receptors, and the mitochondrial pathway.

Activation of c-Src/HER1/STAT5b and HER1/ERK1/2 signaling pathways and cell migration by hexachlorobenzene in MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cell line.

Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) is a widespread environmental pollutant. It is a dioxin-like compound and a weak ligand of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) protein. HCB is a tumor cocarcinogen in rat mammary gland and an inducer of cell proliferation and c-Src kinase activity in MCF-7 breast cancer cells. This study was carried out to investigate HCB action on c-Src and the human epidermal growth factor receptor (HER1) activities and their downstream signaling pathways, Akt, extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (ERK1/2), and signal transducers and activators of transcription (STAT) 5b, as well as on cell migration in a human breast cancer cell line, MDA-MB-231. We also investigated whether the AhR is involved in HCB-induced effects. We have demonstrated that HCB (0.05µM) produces an early increase of Y416-c-Src, Y845-HER1, Y699-STAT5b, and ERK1/2 phosphorylation. Moreover, our results have shown that the pesticide (15 min) activates these pathways in a dose-dependent manner (0.005, 0.05, 0.5, and 5µM). In contrast, HCB does not alter T308-Akt activation. Pretreatment with a specific inhibitor for c-Src (4-amino-5-(4-chlorophenyl)-7-(t-butyl) pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidine [PP2]) prevents Y845-HER1 and Y699-STAT5b phosphorylation. AG1478, a specific HER1 inhibitor, abrogates HCB-induced STAT5b and ERK1/2 activation, whereas 4,7-orthophenanthroline and α-naphthoflavone, two AhR antagonists, prevent HCB-induced STAT5b and ERK1/2 phosphorylation. HCB enhances cell migration evaluated by scratch motility and transwell assays. Pretreatment with PP2, AG1478, and 4,7-orthophenanthroline suppresses HCB-induced cell migration. These results demonstrate that HCB stimulates c-Src/HER1/STAT5b and HER1/ERK1/2 signaling pathways in MDA-MB-231. c-Src, HER1, and AhR are involved in HCB-induced increase in cell migration. The present study makes a significant contribution to the molecular mechanism of action of HCB in mammary carcinogenesis.

Biochemical changes during goiter induction by methylmercaptoimidazol and inhibition by delta-iodolactone in rat.

BACKGROUND: We have demonstrated that the administration of delta-iodolactone (i.e., 5-iodo-delta lactone) of arachidonic acid (IL-delta), a mediator in thyroid autoregulation, prevents goiter induction by methylmercaptoimidazol (MMI) in rats. Other studies have shown that transforming growth factor beta-1 (TGF-beta1) mimics some of the actions of excess iodide, but its participation in autoregulation is disputed. The present studies were performed to test the hypotheses that IL-delta decreases thyroid growth by inhibition of cell proliferation and/or by stimulation of apoptosis due to oxidative stress, that TGF-beta is stimulated by an excess of iodide and by IL-delta, and that c-Myc and c-Fos expression are upregulated during goiter induction and downregulated during goiter inhibition. METHODS: Rats were treated with MMI alone or together with iodide or IL-delta. Thyroid weight, cell number, cell proliferation, apoptosis, and oxidative stress were determined. Proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), TGF-beta1, TGF-beta3, c-Myc, and c-Fos were measured by Western blot. RESULTS: MMI caused a progressive increase in thyroid weight accompanied by an increase in cell number, asymmetry of the ploidy histograms, and PCNA, c-Fos, and c-Myc expression. In addition, an early increase of apoptosis was observed. Peroxides as well as glutathione peroxidase and catalase activities were also increased in goitrous animals. The inhibitory action of IL-delta on goiter formation was accompanied by the inhibition of cell proliferation evidenced by a significant decrease in cell number, PCNA expression, and asymmetry of the ploidy histograms. A transient stimulation of apoptosis after 7 days of treatment was also observed. MMI administration stimulated TGF-beta1 but not TGF-beta3 synthesis. IL-delta alone caused a slight increase of TGF-beta3 but not TGF-beta1, whereas potassium iodide (KI) stimulated both isoforms and MMI reversed KI effect on TGF-beta1 expression but not on TGF-beta3. CONCLUSIONS: The goiter inhibitory action of IL-delta is due to the inhibition of cell proliferation and the transient stimulation of apoptosis. This latter action does not involve oxidative stress. TGF-beta1 does not play a role in the autoregulatory pathway mediated by IL-delta. Iodide stimulates TGF-beta3 without the need of being organified. These results suggest that there may be more than one pathway involved in the autoregulatory mechanism.

Hexachlorobenzene triggers apoptosis in rat thyroid follicular cells.

Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) is a widespread environmental pollutant. Chronic exposure of humans to HCB produces a number of effects, such as triggering of porphyria, increased synthesis of liver microsomal enzymes, neurological symptoms, immunological disorders and thyroid dysfunctions. In rats, HCB induced hepatic porphyria, neurotoxic effects, and toxic effects on the reproductive system, thyroid function, and immune system. HCB is also known to cause tumors of the liver, thyroid and mammary gland in laboratory animals. The aim of this study was to investigate parameters of thyroid growth regulation, mainly cell proliferation and apoptosis in thyroid tissue from HCB (0.1, 1, 10, 100, and 500 mg/kg body weight)-treated female Wistar rats. The current study demonstrates that only the exposure to the highest HCB dose for 30 days, has adverse effects on thyroid endpoints examined related to thyroid gland morphology, and 3,3'5,5'-tetraiodothyronine (T(4), thyroxine) serum levels, without changes in thyroid-stimulating hormone concentrations or in thyroid gland weight. Morphological changes, included flattened epithelium and increased colloid size compared with control tissue. Transforming growth factor (TGF-beta1) mRNA levels, evaluated by RT-PCR, revealed a significant upregulation after exposure to HCB (1, 10, 100 mg/kg body weight). Cell proliferation evaluated by 5'-Br deoxiuridine incorporation into DNA, was not altered at any dose. HCB (1, 10, 100 mg/kg body weight) induces apoptosis, evaluated by in situ end labeling of fragmented DNA, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated deoxy uridine triphosphate nick-end labeling, in rat thyroid glands. This process is associated with dose-dependent increases in cytochrome c release from the mitochondria and procaspase-9 processing to its active product. Caspase-8 was not activated. These studies indicate that doses of HCB that do not disrupt thyroid economy induce TGF-beta1 expression and apoptosis in the thyroid gland, involving the mitochondrial pathway.

Hexachlorobenzene is a tumor co-carcinogen and induces alterations in insulin-growth factors signaling pathway in the rat mammary gland.

Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) is a widespread environmental pollutant. Controversy still exists about the breast carcinogenic properties of organochlorines in humans. The ligands, receptors, and related signaling proteins of the insulin growth factor family are involved in the regulation of breast-cancer cell growth. The aims of this study were to determine: (1) whether HCB is co-carcinogenic in a medium term assay of N-nitroso N-methylurea (NMU)-induced mammary tumors in rats; (2) the effect of HCB on insulin receptor (IR), insulin-like growth factor-I receptor (IGF-IR) and insulin receptor substrate-1 (IRS-1) levels and on IRS-1 phosphorylation; (3) microsomal and cytosolic Protein Tyrosine Kinase (PTK) activities in mammary glands and NMU-induced tumors. Sprague Dawley rats were injected with 50 mg/kg body weight of NMU at 50, 80, and 110 days old. HCB (100 mg/kg body weight) was administered three times a week from 65 to 110 days of age. Rats were separated in four groups: control, NMU, HCB, and NMU-HCB. HCB alone did not induce tumor development. Parameters of tumor development were increased in NMU-HCB compared to NMU rats. A higher cellular undifferentiation was observed in NMU-HCB tumors. IR, IGF-IR, and IRS-1 levels were higher in HCB than in controls. Conversely IGF-IR levels decreased in NMU-HCB vs. NMU group. The IRS-1 phosphorylation increased in HCB rats; however, it decreased in NMU-HCB vs. NMU. HCB decreased microsomal PTK activity in tumors. This study showed for the first time that HCB is a co-carcinogenic agent in NMU-induced mammary tumors in rats. Our results suggest that the IR and/or IGF-IR signaling pathway may be involved in the mechanism of action of HCB.

Hexachlorobenzene-induced early changes in ornithine decarboxylase and protein tyrosine kinase activities, polyamines and c-Myc, c-Fos and c-Jun proto-oncogenes in rat liver.

Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) is a lipophilic chemical compound that is widely distributed in the environment. HCB is known to cause liver tumors in experimental animals. In the present study the in vivo effect of HCB treatment on ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) and protein tyrosine kinase (PTK) activities, free polyamine content, and c-Myc, c-Fos, and c-Jun protein levels in rat liver were investigated. HCB (1000 mg/kg body weight) increased hepatic immunodetectable c-Myc, c-Fos, and c-Jun levels after 6 h, and ODC activity and spermine and putrescine content after 18 and 24 h, while maximum stimulation of PTK activity occurred at 12 h. PTK and ODC activities varied in a dose-dependent manner. The time-course of c-Myc, c-Fos, and c-Jun protein levels was different for each proto-oncogene. They were all elevated at the second day of treatment, while only c-Fos and c-Jun remained elevated after 10 days of HCB exposure. These data jointly suggest that the increase in ODC activity may be the consequence of proto-oncogene induction. The alterations in PTK activity suggest that the growth factor signal transduction pathway may be involved in the regulation of the proto-oncogene levels or/and ODC activity. The decrease in PTK activity after the first day, even in the presence of alpha-D-Difluoromethylornithine (DFMO), an inhibitor of ODC activity, suggests that it is not regulated by polyamines. These results may be relevant to the early molecular events involved in HCB tumor promoter activity in rat liver.

Effect of in vivo administered hexachlorobenzene on epidermal growth factor receptor levels, protein tyrosine kinase activity, and phosphotyrosine content in rat liver.

In the present study, the effects of hexachlorobenzene (HCB) on epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) content of liver microsomes and plasma membrane, and on EGFR-tyrosine kinase activity in the microsomal fraction were investigated. In addition, we studied the parameters of the tyrosine kinase signalling pathway such as protein tyrosine kinase (PTK) activity and phosphotyrosine content in microsomal and cytosolic protein. To determine whether the observed alterations were correlated with a manifestation of overt toxicity, a single very low dose of HCB (1mg/kg body wt) and two much higher doses (100 and 1000 mg/kg body wt), the highest being toxicologically significant in that it reduced serum thyroxine (T(4)) and inhibited uroporphyrinogen decarboxylase (URO-D) (EC 4.1.1.37) activity, were tested. Our results demonstrated that liver microsomes of rats treated with HCB had higher levels of EGFR than untreated rats; treated rats also had less EGFR present in hepatocyte plasma membrane fractions than did untreated rats. HCB altered the phosphotyrosine content and protein phosphorylation of some microsomal and cytosolic proteins in a biphasic dose-response relationship. At the low dose, phosphorylation and phosphotyrosine content of several microsomal proteins were increased; however, these effects were diminished or reversed at the higher doses. Our results suggest that chronic HCB treatment produces a down-regulation of the EGFR and a dose-dependent increase in EGFR-tyrosine kinase activity in the microsomal fraction. This effect may contribute to the alteration of membrane and cytosolic protein tyrosine phosphorylation. The level of sensitivity encountered in our studies is extraordinary, occurring at 1/10 to 1/1000 the doses of HCB known to cause other toxicological lesions.