Multimodal Structural and Functional Characterization of Retinal Vasculopathy with Cerebral Leukoencephalopathy.

OBJECTIVE: To describe and quantify the structural and functional consequences of retinal vasculopathy with cerebral leukoencephalopathy (RVCL) on the neurosensory retina. DESIGN: Cross sectional descriptive study from December 2021 to December 2022. PARTICIPANTS: Retinal vasculopathy with cerebral leukoencephalopathy patients (n = 9, 18 eyes) recruited from the RVCL Research Center at Washington University in St. Louis. METHODS: Retinal vasculopathy with cerebral leukoencephalopathy patients underwent comprehensive ophthalmological evaluation including OCT, OCT angiography (OCTA), ultrawidefield fundus imaging, retinal autofluorescence, dark adaptation, electroretinography (ERG), Goldmann kinetic perimetry, and fluorescein angiography (FA). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Comprehensive characterization from various modalities including best-corrected visual acuity, central subfield thickness (µm) from OCT, foveal avascular zone (mm2) from OCTA, dark adaptation rod intercept (seconds), cone response in ERG, and presence or absence of vascular abnormalities, leakage, neovascularization, and nonperfusion on FA. RESULTS: A total of 18 eyes from 9 individuals were included in this study. The best-corrected visual acuity ranged from 20/15 to 20/70. The mean central subfield thickness from OCT was 275.8 µm (range, 217-488 µm). The mean foveal avascular zone (FAZ) from OCTA was 0.65 (range, 0.18-1.76) mm2. On dark adaptometry, the mean time was 5.02 (range, 2.9-6.5) minutes, and 1 individual had impaired dark adaptation. Electroretinography demonstrated mild cone response impairment in 4 eyes. On FA, there was evidence of macular and peripheral capillary nonperfusion in 16 of 18 eyes and notable areas of vascular leakage and retinal edema in 5 of the 18 eyes. CONCLUSIONS: This study illustrates the phenotypic spectrum of disease and may be clinically valuable for aiding diagnosis, monitoring disease progression, and further elucidating the pathophysiology of RVCL to aid in the development of therapies. FINANCIAL DISCLOSURE(S): Proprietary or commercial disclosure may be found in the Footnotes and Disclosures at the end of this article.

Stem Cell Therapies for Intraocular Disease.

Irreversible blindness resulting from retinal or optic nerve diseases continues to devastate patients. The use of stem cell technology to reverse blindness promises great individual and societal benefit. Stem cell therapies seek to replace or enhance the function of damaged tissues. Currently, there are no FDA approved and commercially available products in this arena. Numerous clinical trials are underway, but as of today, we are still awaiting rigorous study data. Meanwhile, physicians and patients are desperate to restore vision and are lured to clinics claiming success. It remains our duty to vet these claims and guide our patients with their best interests in mind.

Vitreoretinal Lymphoma: Optimizing Diagnostic Yield and Accuracy.

PURPOSE: To determine whether the addition of adjunctive tests, including immunohistochemistry (IHC), cytokine analysis, flow cytometry, and IgH gene rearrangement testing, achieves improved diagnostic parameters compared with cytologic smears alone in the detection of vitreoretinal lymphoma (VRL). To determine which of these tests or combination of tests provide the greatest diagnostic utility. DESIGN: Retrospective review to assess diagnostic value. METHODS: This single university-affiliated tertiary care center study included data from 237 vitreous biopsies performed between 1999 and 2017 in patients with suspected VRL. From 1999 to 2008-2009, cytologic smears were the sole test performed (84 cases). The protocol initiated in 2008-2009 added the 4 additional diagnostic tests (153 cases). The sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, negative predictive value, diagnostic accuracy, and diagnostic yield were calculated. Parameters were calculated for tests individually, for all 5 combined, and all possible 2-, 3-, and 4-test combinations. For cytologic smears, diagnostic parameters were calculated both before and after the addition of adjunctive tests to our protocol and for the entire cohort. RESULTS: Of the 237 vitreous biopsies, 50 samples (21%) were from patients with confirmed central nervous system lymphoma and/or actively treated central nervous system, systemic, or intraocular lymphoma. Diagnostic yields (95% CI) were 90% (85%-93%) for smears, 82% (72%-89%) for IHC, 91% (85%-96%) for cytokine analysis, 76% (67%-84%) for IgH gene rearrangement, and 50% (40%-60%) for flow cytometry. For smears, the sensitivity pre-protocol was 73% (39%-94%), compared with 87% (69%-96%) post-protocol. IgH gene rearrangement was the only test exhibiting low sensitivity (40%). The combination of smears, IHC, and cytokine analysis exhibited the highest diagnostic parameters, with sensitivity 92%, specificity 98%, and diagnostic yield 100%. CONCLUSIONS: The combination of cytologic smears, IHC, and cytokine analysis seems to be a reasonable and sufficient protocol for the diagnosis of suspected VRL. IgH gene rearrangement and flow cytometry may be the most expendable tests from our protocol.

Targeting primary and metastatic uveal melanoma with a G protein inhibitor.

Uveal melanoma (UM) is the most common intraocular tumor in adults. Nearly half of UM patients develop metastatic disease and often succumb within months because effective therapy is lacking. A novel therapeutic approach has been suggested by the discovery that UM cell lines driven by mutant constitutively active Gq or G11 can be targeted by FR900359 (FR) or YM-254890, which are bioavailable, selective inhibitors of the Gq/11/14 subfamily of heterotrimeric G proteins. Here, we have addressed the therapeutic potential of FR for UM. We found that FR inhibited all oncogenic Gq/11 mutants reported in UM. FR arrested growth of all Gq/11-driven UM cell lines tested, but induced apoptosis only in a few. Similarly, FR inhibited growth of, but did not efficiently kill, UM tumor cells from biopsies of primary or metastatic tumors. FR evoked melanocytic redifferentiation of UM tumor cells with low (class 1), but not high (class 2), metastatic potential. FR administered systemically below its LD50 strongly inhibited growth of PDX-derived class 1 and class 2 UM tumors in mouse xenograft models and reduced blood pressure transiently. FR did not regress xenografted UM tumors or significantly affect heart rate, liver function, hematopoiesis, or behavior. These results indicated the existence of a therapeutic window in which FR can be explored for treating UM and potentially other diseases caused by constitutively active Gq/11.

Factors Associated with Adherence to Screening Guidelines for Diabetic Retinopathy Among Low-Income Metropolitan Patients.

In this retrospective analysis of patients with diabetes in an academic primary care clinic in St. Louis, attendance at ophthalmic screening appointments was recorded over a two-year observation window. Factors associated with adherence were analyzed by multivariable regression. Among 974 total patients included, only 330 (33.9%) were adherent within a two-year period. Multivariate analyses identified older age, female gender, primary language other than English, and attendance at ancillary diabetes clinic visits as factors associated with improved diabetic retinopathy screening adherence. Factors not associated with adherence included race and insurance status.

NCCN Guidelines Insights: Uveal Melanoma, Version 1.2019.

The NCCN Guidelines for Uveal Melanoma include recommendations for staging, treatment, and follow-up of patients diagnosed with uveal melanoma of the choroid or ciliary body. In addition, because distinguishing between uveal melanoma and benign uveal nevi is in some cases difficult, these guidelines also contain recommendations for workup of patients with suspicious pigmented uveal lesions, to clarify the tests needed to distinguish between those who should have further workup and treatment for uveal melanoma versus those with uncertain diagnosis and low risk who should to be followed and later reevaluated. These NCCN Guidelines Insights describe recommendations for treatment of newly diagnosed nonmetastatic uveal melanoma in patients who have already undergone a complete workup.

Tofacitinib for refractory uveitis and scleritis.

PURPOSE: To report the successful use of tofacitinib in the treatment of refractory uveitis and scleritis. OBSERVATIONS: Two patients, one with scleritis and another with anterior and intermediate uveitis, presented with refractory disease after failure of multiple steroid-sparing therapies. Treatment with tofacitinib led to durable resolution of uveitis and scleritis. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPORTANCE: Tofacitinib is a potential novel treatment option for refractory, noninfectious inflammatory eye disease.

MRI-based treatment planning and dose delivery verification for intraocular melanoma brachytherapy.

PURPOSE: Episcleral plaque brachytherapy (EPB) planning is conventionally based on approximations of the implant geometry with no volumetric imaging following plaque implantation. We have developed an MRI-based technique for EPB treatment planning and dose delivery verification based on the actual patient-specific geometry. METHODS AND MATERIALS: MR images of 6 patients, prescribed 85 Gy over 96 hours from Collaborative Ocular Melanoma Study-based EPB, were acquired before and after implantation. Preimplant and postimplant scans were used to generate "preplans" and "postplans", respectively. In the preplans, a digital plaque model was positioned relative to the tumor, sclera, and nerve. In the postplans, the same plaque model was positioned based on the imaged plaque. Plaque position, point doses, percentage of tumor volume receiving 85 Gy (V100), and dose to 100% of tumor volume (Dmin) were compared between preplans and postplans. All isodose plans were computed using TG-43 formalism with no heterogeneity corrections. RESULTS: Shifts and tilts of the plaque ranged from 1.4 to 8.6 mm and 1.0 to 3.8 mm, respectively. V100 was ≥97% for 4 patients. Dmin for preplans and postplans ranged from 83 to 118 Gy and 45 to 110 Gy, respectively. Point doses for tumor apex and base were all found to decrease from the preimplant to the postimplant plan, with mean differences of 16.7 ± 8.6% and 30.5 ± 11.3%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: By implementing MRI for EPB, we eliminate reliance on approximations of the eye and tumor shape and the assumption of idealized plaque placement. With MRI, one can perform preimplant as well as postimplant imaging, facilitating EPB treatment planning based on the actual patient-specific geometry and dose-delivery verification based on the imaged plaque position.

Extramedullary Relapse of Acute Myelogenous Leukemia Presenting as a Large Serous Retinal Detachment.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: To describe the rare presentation of a large, unilateral, serous retinal detachment as an extramedullary manifestation of acute myelogenous leukemia (AML) recurrence without bone marrow or central nervous system involvement after more than 1 year of follow-up. METHODS: Case report. RESULTS: A teenage patient with AML, previously treated with multiple courses of systemic chemotherapy, radiation, and bone marrow transplant, presented with acute vision loss. Ophthalmic workup revealed a large, unilateral, bullous, serous retinal detachment. Ultimately, he underwent subretinal fluid biopsy, which was found to be positive for leukemic blast cells. Cytologic markers matched his initial bone marrow biopsy, and therefore were diagnostic of extramedullary AML relapse. CONCLUSIONS: Leukemia can cause various ophthalmic manifestations. Autopsy studies suggest that choroidal infiltration is relatively common, but clinical progression to serous retinal detachment is quite uncommon. Furthermore, serous retinal detachment is generally shallow, posterior, and much more often reported in acute lymphocytic leukemia. The ophthalmologist plays a critical role in identifying leukemic ocular involvement. This case demonstrates the potential for ocular biopsy to secure the diagnosis of extramedullary relapse in order to initiate prompt treatment and systemic workup.

Morphological assessment of the retina in uveitis.

BACKGROUND: The objective of this study is to describe a system for color photograph evaluation in uveitis and report baseline morphologic findings for the Multicenter Uveitis Steroid Treatment (MUST) Trial. Four-hundred seventy-nine eyes of 255 subjects with intermediate, posterior, and panuveitis had stereoscopic color fundus photographs obtained by certified photographers and evaluated by certified graders using standardized procedures to evaluate morphologic characteristics of uveitis. The posterior pole was evaluated for macular edema, vitreoretinal interface abnormalities, and macular pigment disturbance/atrophy; the optic disk was assessed for edema, pallor, or glaucomatous changes. The presence of neovascularization, vascular occlusion, vascular sheathing, and tractional retinal changes was determined. A random subset of 77 images was re-graded to determine the percentage agreement with the original grading on a categorical scale. RESULTS: At baseline, 437/479 eyes had images available to grade. Fifty-three eyes were completely ungradable due to media opacity. Common features of intermediate and posterior/panuveitis were epiretinal membrane (134 eyes, 35 %), and chorioretinal lesions (140 eyes, 36 %). Macular edema was seen in 16 %. Optic nerve head and vascular abnormalities were rare. Reproducibility evaluation found exact agreement for the presence of chorioretinal lesions was 78 %, the presence and location of macular edema was 71 %, and the presence of epiretinal membrane was 71 %. Vertical cup-to-disk ratio measurement had intra-class correlation of 0.75. CONCLUSIONS: The MUST system for evaluating stereoscopic color fundus photographs describes the morphology of uveitis and its sequelae, in a standardized manner, is highly reproducible, and allows monitoring of treatment effect and safety evaluation regarding these outcomes in clinical trials.

Impaired autophagy in macrophages promotes inflammatory eye disease.

Autophagy is critical for maintaining cellular homeostasis. Organs such as the eye and brain are immunologically privileged. Here, we demonstrate that autophagy is essential for maintaining ocular immune privilege. Deletion of multiple autophagy genes in macrophages leads to an inflammation-mediated eye disease called uveitis that can cause blindness. Loss of autophagy activates inflammasome-mediated IL1B secretion that increases disease severity. Inhibition of caspase activity by gene deletion or pharmacological means completely reverses the disease phenotype. Of interest, experimental uveitis was also increased in a model of Crohn disease, a systemic autoimmune disease in which patients often develop uveitis, offering a potential mechanistic link between macrophage autophagy and systemic disease. These findings directly implicate the homeostatic process of autophagy in blinding eye disease and identify novel pathways for therapeutic intervention in uveitis.

A case of recurrent bilateral uveitis independently associated with dabrafenib and pembrolizumab therapy.

PURPOSE: To report the case of an adult female who presented on different occasions with recurrent uveitis provoked by initiating therapy of two recently approved agents, dabrafenib and pembrolizumab, for treatment of metastatic melanoma. OBSERVATIONS: A 61 year old female presented with bilateral anterior uveitis after initiating therapy with dabrafenib for advanced metastatic melanoma. Her symptoms resolved and exam improved with oral and topical steroid therapy. Months later, she was started on pembrolizumab and transitioned off dabrafenib. Within days of starting pembrolizumab, she developed recurrent bilateral uveitis. This responded to escalating doses of topical and oral corticosteroid therapy and resolved following discontinuation of pembrolizumab. Nine months later, our patient received her third dose of pembrolizumab due to further progression of melanoma and within three days developed blurry vision, photophobia and subsequent ophthalmologic exam demonstrated bilateral panuveitis. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPORTANCE: Dabrafenib and pembrolizumab therapy have both previously been associated with uveitis. Here, we document a case of a woman who developed acute uveitis in response to beginning therapy with dabrafenib and then later developed acute uveitis soon after initiating pembrolizumab. To our knowledge, this is the first time this uncommon side-effect has been reported in the same patient after receiving sequential targeted agents and checkpoint inhibitors.

IgG4-associated orbital and ocular inflammation.

BACKGROUND: IgG4-associated orbital and ocular inflammation is a relatively unknown entity characterized by sclerosing inflammation with infiltration of IgG4-positive plasma cells. Some so-called idiopathic inflammation syndromes are being re-classified as IgG4-associated inflammation with histopathologic evaluation. FINDINGS: We report three cases with differing manifestations of IgG4-associated ocular and orbital inflammation: a case of recurrent, treatment-refractory sclero-uveitis that was diagnosed as granulomatosis with polyangiitis with an IgG4-related component, a case of pachymeningitis with optic neuritis that resulted in permanent visual loss, and a case of orbital inflammatory pseudotumor. All three would have been incompletely diagnosed without thorough histopathologic evaluation (including immunohistochemistry). CONCLUSIONS: IgG4-associated disease is an idiopathic, multi-organ inflammatory state that can manifest as chronic, relapsing, sclerosing inflammation in virtually any organ system. There is a wide range of presentations in ocular and orbital inflammation. Ophthalmologists should keep IgG4-associated inflammation in mind when examining chronic, sclerofibrosing inflammation with multi-system involvement. The histology of biopsy specimens is crucial in making the correct diagnosis. Timely assessment may lead to fewer diagnostic tests and more targeted therapy.

Microstructural retinal findings by spectral-domain optical coherence tomography after vitrectomy repair of rhegmatogenous retinal detachments.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: To evaluate macular microstructural changes after macula-involving rhegmatogenous retinal detachment repair and correlate with visual recovery. PATIENTS AND METHODS: A prospective, observational study was performed of select patients presenting with macula-involving rhegmatogenous retinal detachments (RRD). Spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) imaging was performed at postoperative visits over the course of the first year after operative repair of the RRD. RESULTS: The maculas of seven patients were evaluated. Postoperative best corrected visual acuity (BCVA) at the final follow-up ranged from 20/20 to 20/70 for all patients. Eyes with final BCVA greater than 20/40 had intact external limiting membrane and outer photoreceptor structures, while those with BCVA of less than 20/70 had poorer definition to those structures. Serial images showed resolution of irregularities in both the external limiting membrane and outer photoreceptor structures. CONCLUSION: Macular structure and function can progressively improve in the first year after successful RRD repair, including in the external limiting membrane, damage to which has previously been thought to be irreversible. SD-OCT serves as a useful tool to monitor postoperative retinal recovery.