ABSTRACT
The hybrid nature of lager-brewing yeast strains has been known for 25 years; however, yeast hybrids have only recently been described in cider and wine fermentations. In this study, we characterized the hybrid genomes and the relatedness of the Eg8 industrial yeast strain and of 24 Saccharomyces cerevisiae/Saccharomyces kudriavzevii hybrid yeast strains used for wine making in France (Alsace), Germany, Hungary, and the United States. An array-based comparative genome hybridization (aCGH) profile of the Eg8 genome revealed a typical chimeric profile. Measurement of hybrids DNA content per cell by flow cytometry revealed multiple ploidy levels (2n, 3n, or 4n), and restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of 22 genes indicated variable amounts of S. kudriavzevii genetic content in three representative strains. We developed microsatellite markers for S. kudriavzevii and used them to analyze the diversity of a population isolated from oaks in Ardèche (France). This analysis revealed new insights into the diversity of this species. We then analyzed the diversity of the wine hybrids for 12 S. cerevisiae and 7 S. kudriavzevii microsatellite loci and found that these strains are the products of multiple hybridization events between several S. cerevisiae wine yeast isolates and various S. kudriavzevii strains. The Eg8 lineage appeared remarkable, since it harbors strains found over a wide geographic area, and the interstrain divergence measured with a (δµ)(2) genetic distance indicates an ancient origin. These findings reflect the specific adaptations made by S. cerevisiae/S. kudriavzevii cryophilic hybrids to winery environments in cool climates.
Subject(s)
Chimera , Industrial Microbiology , Saccharomyces/growth & development , Saccharomyces/genetics , Wine/microbiology , Comparative Genomic Hybridization , DNA, Fungal/chemistry , DNA, Fungal/genetics , Evolution, Molecular , France , Genetic Variation , Germany , Hungary , Microarray Analysis , Microsatellite Repeats , Molecular Sequence Data , Polymorphism, Restriction Fragment Length , Recombination, Genetic , Saccharomyces/metabolism , Sequence Analysis, DNA , United StatesABSTRACT
A 75-year-old woman experienced fever and convulsions. She was treated for diabetes mellitus, angina pectoris and also for arteritis with Buflomedil Merck (3 tab/d). Further investigations failed to find any aetiology. Buflomedil dosage was elevated to 6.3 mg/l (N = 4-4.5 mg/l). The drug was discontinued and there was no recurrence of symptoms. There was no evidence of error in dosage or interaction. A failure of the generic product was suspected. Only a pharmacist solved the problem. Fonzylane (buflomedil) had recently been switched to Buflomedil Merck. The patient misunderstood the change and took both drugs! Our purpose is not to report a known effect but to emphasize the importance of extending the information given to the patient and the risk of misuse of the generic product.
