Animal Health Management Practices Among Smallholder Livestock Producers in Australia and Their Contribution to the Surveillance System.

The risks posed for disease introduction and spread are believed to be higher for smallholder livestock producers than commercial producers. Possible reasons for this is the notion that smallholders do not implement appropriate animal health management practices and are not part of traditional livestock communication networks. These factors contribute to the effectiveness of passive disease surveillance systems. A cross-sectional study, using a postal survey (n = 1,140) and group interviews (28 participants in three groups), was conducted to understand the animal health management and communication practices of smallholders keeping sheep, cattle, pigs, dairy goats and alpacas in Australia. These practices are crucial for an effective passive surveillance system. Findings indicate that there is a need for improvement in animal health management practices, such as contact with veterinarians and attitudes toward reporting. Results also indicate that these practices differ depending on the livestock species kept, with sheep ownership being associated with lower engagement with surveillance activities and smallholders keeping dairy goats and alpacas having in general better practices. Other factors associated with surveillance practices among participant smallholders are gender and years of experience raising livestock. Despite the differences observed, over 80% of all smallholders actively seek information on the health of their livestock, with private veterinarians considered to be a trusted source. Emergency animal diseases are not a priority among smallholders, however they are concerned about the health of their animals. The finding that veterinarians were identified by producers to be the first point of contact in the event of unusual signs of disease, strengthens the argument that private veterinarians play a vital role in improving passive surveillance. Other producers are also a point of contact for animal health advice, with government agencies less likely to be contacted. The effectiveness of on-farm passive surveillance could be enhanced by developing strategies involving both private veterinarians and producers as key stakeholders, which aim to improve awareness of disease and disease reporting responsibilities.

Assessing Biosecurity Risks for the Introduction and Spread of Diseases Among Commercial Sheep Properties in New South Wales, Australia, Using Foot-and-Mouth Disease as a Case Study.

Sheep production systems are a major industry in Australia, with a gross value of roughly $4.66 billion; 87.3% of which is attributable to export markets. Exotic diseases such as foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) are a potential threat to the viability of Australia's export market. Previous outbreaks of FMD in developed countries, and challenges in the management of onshore biosecurity, signify the importance of on-farm biosecurity in controlling disease transmission. This study aims to investigate the risk of disease introduction and spread among New South Wales (NSW) sheep properties using FMD as a case study and draw recommendation for the industry. Exposure and partial consequence assessments, using scenario trees and Monte Carlo stochastic modeling, were conducted to identify pathways of introduction and spread and calculate the probabilities of these pathways occurring. Input parameters were estimated from the data obtained during qualitative interviews with producers and scientific literature. According to the reported practices of sheep producers and assuming each pathway was carrying the FMD virus, the exposure assessment estimates the median (5-95%) probability of FMD exposure of sheep on a naive property to be 0.619 (0.541-0.698), 0.151 (0.085-0.239), 0.235 (0.153-0.324), and 0.710 (0.619-0.791) for introduction through new stock, wildlife, carriers (humans, dogs, and vehicles), and neighbors, respectively. The spread assessment estimated the median probability of FMD spreading from an infected sheep property to neighboring enterprises to be 0.603 (0.504-0.698). A similar probability was estimated for spread via wildlife (0.523; 0.404-0.638); and a lower spread probability was estimated for carriers (0.315; 0.171-0.527), sheep movement (0.285; 0.161-0.462), and dead stock (0.168; 0.070-0.312). The sensitivity analysis revealed that the introduction of an FMD-infected sheep was more influential for exposure via new stock than isolation practices. Sharing adjacent boundaries was found to be the most influential factor for exposure and spread between neighboring enterprises, and to a lesser extent, hygiene practices were found to have the most influence on exposure and spread through carriers. To minimize the potential risk of FMD introduction and spread between sheep properties, maintenance of boundary fences, identification of infected animals before introduction to the property, and hygiene and disinfection practices should be improved.

Promoting transboundary animal disease risk management via a multiple health and husbandry intervention strategies in upland Lao PDR.

Surveys of smallholder farmer knowledge, attitude, practice (KAP) and income were conducted in 2011 and 2012 in five northern provinces of Lao People's Democratic Republic (Lao PDR; n = 200 farmers). Participating villages were classified as either from a livelihood development project (LV; n = 80 farmers) or a livestock research project that contained both 'high-intervention' (HI; n = 60 farmers) or 'low-intervention' (LI; n = 60 farmers) villages. Farmer training plus a suite of health and productivity interventions were implemented in HI sites; only vaccination was implemented in LI sites, whilst various interventions and limited vaccination were introduced to LV sites. Farmer interviews were conducted with survey questions on socioeconomic variables and KAP of large ruminant health and disease risk management, enabling determination of quantitative and dichotomous qualitative traits and comparison of results from HI, LI and LV villages. The average farmer income from sales of large ruminants in HI was USD 621, in LI was USD 547 and in LV was USD 225 (p < 0.001). The predicted mean of total knowledge scores (/42) in the 2012 survey in HI was 28, in LI was 22 and in LV was 17 (p < 0.001). We conclude that improved KAP of large ruminant health and production can be achieved by intensive training, although with some farmers yet to apply their knowledge on husbandry and biosecurity practices, continued learning support and closed linkage of research and development projects to improve extension capacity is recommended. This multiple participatory approach promoting biosecurity in addition to vaccination may provide a more sustainable pathway for the advancement of Lao PDR on the Progressive Control Pathway for foot and mouth disease control.

Why are simple control options for Toxocara vitulorum not being implemented by cattle and buffalo smallholder farmers in South-East Asia?

Toxocara vitulorum infection in large ruminants is endemic in many tropical countries and particularly in South-East Asia. A single treatment of calves with pyrantel at 14-21 days of age effectively controls the parasite. Despite this treatment being readily available, T. vitulorum infection remains common and widespread. To understand drivers of effective control of T. vitulorum infection, we examined treatment practices and knowledge of smallholder farmers of this parasite plus determined annual calf morbidity and mortality and identified potential risk factors for these estimates. Interviews were conducted with 273 smallholder farmers who had calves tested for T. vitulorum 4-6 months earlier. Reproductive rates of 0.6 and 0.4 calf per annum in cattle and buffalo respectively, and annual calf morbidity and mortality of 42.6% (CI 0.38-0.47) and 37.3% (CI 0.33-0.42) respectively, were identified. Interviewed farmers had either none (80.6%) or only minimal (19.4%) knowledge about T. vitulorum and only 2.5% of the farmers treated their calves for T. vitulorum using the recommended control regime. Multivariable logistic regression analyses with random effects showed that the number of adult cattle per household, T. vitulorum infection status of the household herd and farmer knowledge of T. vitulorum were significantly associated with calf morbidity and mortality. Financial analysis using partial budgeting showed a net benefit of USD 3.69, 7.46, 11.09 or 14.86 per calf when treating calves with pyrantel and attributing 25%, 50%, 75% or 100% of morbidity and mortality to T. vitulorum infection. The study identified that poor reproduction, high calf morbidity and mortality combined with very limited farmer knowledge and effective control of endemic Toxocariasis, contribute to suboptimal large ruminant production in mixed smallholder farming systems in South-East Asia. The large net benefit per calf achievable by a single pyrantel treatment should drive implementation of this intervention by smallholder farmers, especially as demand for livestock products continues to increase in this region and forces a change to more production oriented farming. To support this, continued capacity building that ensures knowledge transfer of best practice T. vitulorum control to smallholder farmers is required.

Prevalence and clinical impact of Toxocara vitulorum in cattle and buffalo calves in northern Lao PDR.

This study was completed to determine the prevalence and distribution of Toxocara vitulorum infection in cattle and buffalo calves and investigate its clinical impact in northern Lao PDR (Peoples Democratic Republic). The results aim to assist decisions on disease control measures that can contribute to increasing cattle and buffalo productivity within smallholder farming systems in tropical areas. A prevalence survey for T. vitulorum in buffalo and cattle calves aged <3 months was conducted between September 2009 and June 2010 in five provinces of northern Lao PDR using a two-stage sampling technique to select 69 villages and 899 calves, with faecal samples collected and examined for T. vitulorum eggs at a local laboratory. At the time of sampling, data on calf morbidity and anthelmintic treatment was also collected. Factors potentially associated with infection and severity of infection were analyzed at univariable and multivariable levels, using T. vitulorum status (positive/negative) and on the positive calves only, faecal egg count levels as outcome variables. The estimated prevalence of T. vitulorum in northern Lao was 22.6 % (95 % confidence interval [CI], 0.17-0.28), and 76.8 % of villages had at least one positive calf. Province was the only significant (p < 0.05) variable investigated associated with calf infection status. Species (buffalo) was the only variable significantly (p < 0.05) associated with higher egg per gram of faeces levels among infected calves. Prevalence in calves aged 1-21 days, the reported prepatent period, was 17.5 % (CI 0.11-0.24). Treatment levels were very low (8.2 %) and if treatment occurred it was mostly unsuccessful. The high and wide spread infection of T. vitulorum in cattle and buffalo calves identified in this survey is likely to result in suboptimal cattle and buffalo productivity. Improved management of T. vitulorum infection in cattle and buffalo calves in northern Lao PDR is indicated to reduce potential negative production impacts and enable more efficient development of large ruminant livestock industry as a pathway from rural poverty for smallholder farmers in northern Lao PDR. In addition to quantifying this disease problem in calves, the conduct of this applied participatory research study provided an important opportunity to improve animal health services by increasing the parasite, large ruminant handling and research knowledge and capacity of government animal health staff and farmers.

Significant mortality of large ruminants due to hypothermia in northern and central Lao PDR.

An extreme cold exposure event occurred between March 14th and 19th 2011 in northern and central Lao PDR resulting in a major mortality of cattle and buffalo. At least six northern and one central province reported losses, involving 46 districts and 1,384 smallholder farmers, with a total of 7,162 cattle and 3,744 buffalo reported to have died in association with cold weather. Affected animals were observed to shiver, display slow and shallow respiration, lose consciousness and eventually die. Many deaths occurred at night and were recorded in both sexes and all ages of large ruminants. However, mortalities occurred mostly in animals that were free-grazing in the forest and natural grassland, and exposed to the cold weather. Some housed animals that were provided with warmth from shelter and fires and supplementary feed did not die. Samples from dead animals collected for laboratory analysis confirmed that bacterial or viral pathogens were not present. The cause of the mortality was attributed to hypothermia, and the economic losses were estimated at USD 2,463,912.00. Xieng Khouang Province reported the most severe losses with deaths of 4,600 cattle and 1,665 buffalo. At Thong Haihin meteorological station in this province on March 16th and 17th 2011, minimum temperatures recorded were 6.7°C and 7.5°C and rainfall recorded was 36.6 mm and 61.7 mm, respectively. This was the first reported extreme cold event in living memory occurring between the end of dry season and beginning of the wet season in northern Laos. This event is reported in detail as it caused a major loss of wealth for poor smallholder farmers and indicates that strategies to minimise the impact of extreme cold weather events need to be included in livestock development extension programmes.