Data for assessment of sediment, soil, and water quality at Ashfield flats reserve, Western Australia.

Sediment and water samples were collected using transects and grids within sampling strata, in 2019, 2020, and 2021 from a riparian reserve adjoining the Swan River estuary in Western Australia. Different sampling designs were used each year, with transects and/or grids designed to assess changes in sediment and water quality across assumed environmental gradients such as salinity or distance from possible contaminant sources. Sediments were from 0-10cm; pH and electrical conductivity were measured on suspensions, 32 elements measured by ICP-OES on HNO3/HCl digests, and microplastics counted microscopically after Fenton digestion and density separation. Surface water was from wetland ponds and stormwater drains, with pH, EC measured in-situ. Filtered acidified water subsamples used to measure nitrate + nitrite and dissolved phosphate spectrophotometrically and 26 elements using ICP-OES. Reported data include metadata and are for 231 sediment/soil samples and 172 water samples, including sampling strata categories and UTM and Longitude-Latitude coordinates. Elemental concentrations have been censored based on blank subtraction and calculated lower detection limits, with censored data presented with missing value codes.

Accumulation and potential for transport of microplastics in stormwater drains into marine environments, Perth region, Western Australia.

Stormwater drains are important sinks for microplastics and potentially aid the transport of microplastics from terrestrial to marine environments. Samples were collected from sediments in five stormwater drainage systems with different land uses, area, population, and sediment characteristics. Microplastic concentrations within the drainage network varied between 0 and 3500 microplastics per kg of dry sediment, with a mean concentration of 664 particles per kg. The majority of microplastics found were fibres. Polyethylene and polypropylene were the dominant polymer types (µ-FTIR). Based on a Generalized Linear Mixed Model, the expected number of microplastics for a representative urban drain was 760 particles per kg, with 245 particles per kg expected for an agricultural drain. Sediment grain size was a predictor for microplastic abundance, with sandier sediments containing more microplastics. This study is the first to quantify microplastic pollution in stormwater drainage systems in Western Australia.

The transfer of trace metals in the soil-plant-arthropod system.

Essential and non-essential trace metals are capable of causing toxicity to organisms above a threshold concentration. Extensive research has assessed the behaviour of trace metals in biological and ecological systems, but has typically focused on single organisms within a trophic level and not on multi-trophic transfer through terrestrial food chains. This reinforces the notion of metal toxicity as a closed system, failing to consider one trophic level as a pollution source to another; therefore, obscuring the full extent of ecosystem effects. Given the relatively few studies on trophic transfer of metals, this review has taken a compartment-based approach, where transfer of metals through trophic pathways is considered as a series of linked compartments (soil-plant-arthropod herbivore-arthropod predator). In particular, we consider the mechanisms by which trace metals are taken up by organisms, the forms and transformations that can occur within the organism and the consequences for trace metal availability to the next trophic level. The review focuses on four of the most prevalent metal cations in soil which are labile in terrestrial food chains: Cd, Cu, Zn and Ni. Current knowledge of the processes and mechanisms by which these metals are transformed and moved within and between trophic levels in the soil-plant-arthropod system are evaluated. We demonstrate that the key factors controlling the transfer of trace metals through the soil-plant-arthropod system are the form and location in which the metal occurs in the lower trophic level and the physiological mechanisms of each organism in regulating uptake, transformation, detoxification and transfer. The magnitude of transfer varies considerably depending on the trace metal concerned, as does its toxicity, and we conclude that biomagnification is not a general property of plant-arthropod and arthropod-arthropod systems. To deliver a more holistic assessment of ecosystem toxicity, integrated studies across ecosystem compartments are needed to identify critical pathways that can result in secondary toxicity across terrestrial food-chains.

From source to sink: Rare-earth elements trace the legacy of sulfuric dredge spoils on estuarine sediments.

Land disposal of dredged sulfide-rich coastal sediments generates secondary coastal acid sulfate soils (CASS), as previously reduced sulfide minerals oxidise to produce acidic drainage rich in Fe, SO42- and rare-earth elements (REEs). Few studies investigate both the source and the sink of REEs in the context of interpreting their mobilisation and potential use in tracing anthropogenic activity. Here we investigate REE signatures in estuarine sediments (and overlying surface waters) that have received acute, long-term (>15 years) acidic drainage from legacy sulfuric dredge spoils. It was found that the dredge spoil continues to act as a source of acidity (pH 3.5-5.5), Fe and REEs during development of CASS, and contains negligible acid volatile sulfide (AVS, a proxy for FeS) and relatively low concentrations of ΣREE (mean 44.5 mg/kg, range 4.1-362 mg/kg). In the receiving sediments, high AVS concentrations (mean 92.2 µmol/g, range 0.38-278 µmol/g) reflect elevated FeS content, likely due to high inputs of Fe and SO42- from the acidic drainage, and correspond with a high concentration of total S (mean 852 µmol/g, range 105-2209 µmol/g) and an accumulation of ΣREE (mean 670 mg/kg, range 19.9-1819 mg/kg). Importantly, where drain sediments that were previously enriched in highly reactive sulfidic minerals and trace elements and have become exposed to the atmosphere (e.g. Site 3) and partially oxidised, they provide a further source of acidification, remobilising the REEs to the downstream sediments. Interestingly, we also found a clear positive correlation between phosphorous and REEs both in the dredge spoil and sediment, suggesting phosphate minerals may act as a sink for REEs in CASS influenced drain sediments. This is further supported by strong positive gadolinium anomalies (1.1-1.6) and high calculated anthropogenic Gd values (12-38%), which may reflect the influence of phosphate fertiliser on this eutrophic system.

Multielement geochemistry identifies the spatial pattern of soil and sediment contamination in an urban parkland, Western Australia.

Urban environments are dynamic and highly heterogeneous, and multiple additions of potential contaminants are likely on timescales which are short relative to natural processes. The likely sources and location of soil or sediment contamination in urban environment should therefore be detectable using multielement geochemical composition combined with rigorously applied multivariate statistical techniques. Soil, wetland sediment, and street dust was sampled along intersecting transects in Robertson Park in metropolitan Perth, Western Australia. Samples were analysed for near-total concentrations of multiple elements (including Cd, Ce, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Gd, La, Mn, Nd, Ni, Pb, Y, and Zn), as well as pH, and electrical conductivity. Samples at some locations within Robertson Park had high concentrations of potentially toxic elements (Pb above Health Investigation Limits; As, Ba, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, V, and Zn above Ecological Investigation Limits). However, these concentrations carry low risk due to the main land use as recreational open space, the low proportion of samples exceeding guideline values, and a tendency for the highest concentrations to be located within the less accessible wetland basin. The different spatial distributions of different groups of contaminants was consistent with different inputs of contaminants related to changes in land use and technology over the history of the site. Multivariate statistical analyses reinforced the spatial information, with principal component analysis identifying geochemical associations of elements which were also spatially related. A multivariate linear discriminant model was able to discriminate samples into a-priori types, and could predict sample type with 84% accuracy based on multielement composition. The findings suggest substantial advantages of characterising a site using multielement and multivariate analyses, an approach which could benefit investigations of other sites of concern.

Relationship between heavy metals and minerals extracted from soil clay by standard and novel acid extraction procedures.

Strong acid digestions are commonly used to determine heavy metal (HM) contents in soils. In order to understand more fully the acid digestion processes, a logical step is to determine the extent of dissolution of mineral phases. The aims of this study were to compare the efficiency of extraction of HM by different acid digestions and to monitor the associated dissolution of the clay fraction. The context of the study was to develop a milder chemical extraction method (microwave-assisted 1 mol L-1 HNO3 closed system (NACS)), which recovers more reactive HM and with little dissolution of minerals. The different acid digestion methods dissolved different amounts of minerals from the clay fraction. Both aqua regia (AR) and EPA 3051 dissolved all of the Fe and Al oxides, and the dissolution of kaolin was limited to thinner particles (c dimension), smaller particles in a and b dimensions and grains with lower crystallinity. The lower recovery of HM for AR compared with EPA 3051 was related to the large amount of short-range order phases formed during the AR extraction as these phases have the capacity to re-adsorb HM. The new method (NACS) has the potential to replace other methods of determining bioavailable forms of HM, such as AR and EPA 3051. The contents of Pb, As, Co, Zn, and Cu determined by EPA 3051 and EPA 3052 were quite close.

Quantitative assessment of the distribution of dissolved Au, As and Sb in groundwater using the diffusive gradients in thin films technique.

The mobility of groundwater and its reactivity with subsurface lithologies makes it an ideal medium for investigating both the mineralogy of the extensive volume of the rocks and soils that it comes into contact with, including the distribution of potential commodities, and the presence of contaminants. Groundwater grab sampling is potentially an effective tool for evaluating metal and metalloid concentrations but can suffer from poor replication and high detection limits. This study evaluates the diffusive gradients in thin films (DGT) technique to detect signatures of Au mineralization in groundwater, as well as associated pathfinder and potential contaminant elements (As and Sb). The DGT technique was modified for Au by evaluating a "gel-less" configuration, with diffusion onto an activated carbon binding layer being controlled by the 0.13 mm thick filter membrane (0.45 µm porosity) only, in order to increase sensitivity in quiescent solutions. Laboratory-based measurements indicated that the diffusive boundary layer (DBL) was ∼ 0.40 mm in thickness in quiescent solutions. The modified DGT samplers were then deployed alongside ferrihydrite DGT devices (fitted with 0.8 mm diffusive gels) to simultaneously measure Au, As and Sb in groundwaters surrounding a known arsenopyrite-hosted Au ore body. DGT-measured Au concentrations ranged from 2.0 ng/L to 38.5 ng/L, and were within a factor of 5 of grab sample concentrations. DGT-measured concentrations of As and Sb were above the detection limits, while grab sample concentrations of As and Sb were often close to or below detection. The DGT technique demonstrated methodological improvement over grab sampling of groundwater for the investigated elements with respect to sensitivity, replication, and portability, although DGT requires further evaluation in a wider range of groundwater environments and conditions.

Trace element reactivity in FeS-rich estuarine sediments: influence of formation environment and acid sulfate soil drainage.

Iron monosulfides (FeS) precipitate during benthic mineralisation of organic C and are well known to have a strong influence on trace element bioavailability in sediments. In this study we investigate the reactivity of trace elements (As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Zn) in sediments containing abundant and persistent FeS stores, collected from a south-western Australian estuarine system. Our objective was to explore the influence of sediment formation conditions on trace element reactivity by investigating sediments collected from different environments, including estuarine, riverine and acid sulfate soil influenced sites, within a single estuarine system. In general, we found a higher degree of reactivity (defined by 1 mol/L HCl extractions) for Cd, Mn, Pb and Zn, compared with a lower reactivity of As, Co, Cr, Cu, Mo and Ni. Moderate to strong correlations (R(2)>0.4, P<0.05) were observed between AVS and reactive Cd, Co, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb and Zn within many of the formation environments. In contrast, correlations between AVS and As, Cr and Cu were generally poor (not significant, R(2)<0.4, P>0.05). Based on their reactivity and correlations with AVS, it appears that interactions (sorption, co-precipitation) between FeS and Cd, Mn, Pb and Zn in many of the sediments from this study are probable. Our data also demonstrate that drainage from acid sulfate soils (ASS) can be a source of trace elements at specific sites. A principal components analysis of our reactive (1 mol/L HCl extractable) trace element data clearly distinguished sites receiving ASS drainage from the other non-impacted sites, by a high contribution from Fe-Co-Mn-Ni along the first principal axis, and contributions from higher S-As/lower reactive Pb along the second axis. This demonstrates that trace element reactivity in sediments may provide a geochemical signature for sites receiving ASS drainage.

Development of the diffusive gradients in thin films technique for the measurement of labile gold in natural waters.

Gold is a precious metal that exists in most soils, sediments, and natural waters at extremely low concentrations (<1 µg/kg). The diffusive gradients in thin films (DGT) technique, used extensively for measuring trace metal concentrations in soils, sediments, and waters, has potential for geochemical exploration for gold, but has not been developed for this metal. This work investigates the possibility of measuring labile gold using DGT by introducing a new binding layer based on activated carbon. The performance of this new technique was assessed using gold(III) chloride in solution by: (1) determining the diffusion coefficient of gold(III) in hydrogels; (2) determining the uptake of gold(III) chloride by the new activated carbon binding layer; (3) determining an elution methodology for the binding layer and evaluating its efficiency; (4) assessing the capacity of the activated carbon binding layer to adsorb gold; (5) determining the effect of pH and ionic strength (as NaCl) on performance, and (6) assessing the selectivity of the new binding layer for gold. It was found that the diffusion coefficient of gold(III) increased as solution pH decreased. The diffusion coefficient also increased at high ionic strength (≥0.1 M NaCl). Accounting for these phenomena, the DGT technique behaved predictably under all tested conditions. The technique can potentially be used as a geochemical exploration tool for gold in soils and in aqueous environments, with method detection limits as low as 0.9 ng/L for a 7-day deployment.

Water chemistry and nutrient release during the resuspension of FeS-rich sediments in a eutrophic estuarine system.

The objective of this study was to investigate the impact of resuspending FeS-rich benthic sediment on estuarine water chemistry. To address this objective, we conducted (1) a series of laboratory-based sediment resuspension experiments and (2) also monitored changes in surface water composition during field-based sediment resuspension events that were caused by dredging activities in the Peel-Harvey Estuary, Western Australia. Our laboratory resuspension experiments showed that the resuspension of FeS-rich sediments rapidly deoxygenated estuarine water. In contrast, dredging activities in the field did not noticeably lower O(2) concentrations in adjacent surface water. Additionally, while FeS oxidation in the laboratory resuspensions caused measurable decreases in pH, the field pH was unaffected by the dredging event and dissolved trace metal concentrations remained very low throughout the monitoring period. Dissolved ammonium (NH(4)(+)) and inorganic phosphorus (PO(4)-P) were released into the water column during the resuspension of sediments in both the field and laboratory. Following its initial release, PO(4)-P was rapidly removed from solution in the laboratory-based (<1h) and field-based (<100 m from sediment disposal point) investigations. In comparison to PO(4)-P, NH(4)(+) release was observed to be more prolonged over the 2-week period of the laboratory resuspension experiments. However, our field-based observations revealed that elevated NH(4)(+) concentrations were localised to <100 m from the sediment disposal point. This study demonstrates that alongside the emphasis on acidification, deoxygenation and metal release during FeS resuspension, it is important to consider the possibility of nutrient release from disturbed sediments in eutrophic estuaries.

Application of biosolids in mineral sands mine rehabilitation: use of stockpiled topsoil decreases trace element uptake by plants.

Mineral sands mining involves stripping topsoil to access heavy-mineral bearing deposits, which are then rehabilitated to their original state, commonly pasture in south-west Western Australia. Organic amendments such as biosolids (digested sewage sludge) can contribute organic carbon to the rehabilitating system and improve soil chemical fertility and physical conditions. Use of biosolids also introduces the risk of contamination of the soil-plant system with heavy metals, but may be a useful source of trace elements to plants if the concentrations of these elements are low in unamended soil. We expected that biosolids amendment of areas mined for mineral sands would result in increased concentrations of metals in soils and plants, and that metal uptake would be decreased by adding stockpiled topsoil or by liming. A glasshouse experiment growing a mixed annual ryegrass (Lolium rigidum)-subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum) sward was conducted using two soil materials (residue sand/clay and conserved topsoil) from a mineral sands mine amended with different rates of biosolids (0, 10, 20, 50 dry t/ha), and including a liming treatment (2 t/ha). Total concentrations of metals (As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn) in soil increased with increasing rate of biosolids application. Metal uptake was generally lower where topsoil was present and was decreased by liming. With increasing biosolids application, plant metal concentrations increased for Cd, Ni and Zn but decreased or were erratic for other elements. In clover, biosolids application removed the Zn deficiency observed where biosolids were not applied. Plant uptake of all elements increased with increasing biosolids application, suggesting dilution by increased plant biomass was responsible for erratic metal concentration results. Despite the observed increases in uptake of metals by plants, metal concentrations in both species were low and below food standard thresholds. It is unlikely that a single application of biosolids in this system posed a threat from heavy metal contamination of soils or plants, and was beneficial in terms of Zn nutrition of T. subterraneum.