ABSTRACT
Despite variable and often scarce supplies of inorganic phosphate (Pi) from soils, plants must distribute appropriate amounts of Pi to each cell and subcellular compartment to sustain essential metabolic activities. The ability to monitor Pi dynamics with subcellular resolution in live plants is, therefore, critical for understanding how this essential nutrient is acquired, mobilized, recycled, and stored. Fluorescence indicator protein for inorganic phosphate (FLIPPi) sensors are genetically encoded fluorescence resonance energy transfer-based sensors that have been used to monitor Pi dynamics in cultured animal cells. Here, we present a series of Pi sensors optimized for use in plants. Substitution of the enhanced yellow fluorescent protein component of a FLIPPi sensor with a circularly permuted version of Venus enhanced sensor dynamic range nearly 2.5-fold. The resulting circularly permuted FLIPPi sensor was subjected to a high-efficiency mutagenesis strategy that relied on statistical coupling analysis to identify regions of the protein likely to influence Pi affinity. A series of affinity mutants was selected with dissociation constant values of 0.08 to 11 mm, which span the range for most plant cell compartments. The sensors were expressed in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), and ratiometric imaging was used to monitor cytosolic Pi dynamics in root cells in response to Pi deprivation and resupply. Moreover, plastid-targeted versions of the sensors expressed in the wild type and a mutant lacking the PHOSPHATE TRANSPORT4;2 plastidic Pi transporter confirmed a physiological role for this transporter in Pi export from root plastids. These circularly permuted FLIPPi sensors, therefore, enable detailed analysis of Pi dynamics with subcellular resolution in live plants.
Subject(s)
Arabidopsis/cytology , Arabidopsis/metabolism , Imaging, Three-Dimensional , Phosphates/metabolism , Biological Transport , Cytosol/metabolism , Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer , Hydrogen-Ion Concentration , Luminescent Proteins/metabolism , Mutation/genetics , Phosphates/pharmacology , Plant Epidermis/cytology , Plant Epidermis/drug effects , Plant Roots/cytology , Plant Roots/drug effects , Plastids/metabolism , Subcellular Fractions/drug effects , Subcellular Fractions/metabolismABSTRACT
Asymmetric cell divisions allow stem cells to balance proliferation and differentiation. During embryogenesis, murine epidermis expands rapidly from a single layer of unspecified basal layer progenitors to a stratified, differentiated epithelium. Morphogenesis involves perpendicular (asymmetric) divisions and the spindle orientation protein LGN, but little is known about how the apical localization of LGN is regulated. Here, we combine conventional genetics and lentiviral-mediated in vivo RNAi to explore the functions of the LGN-interacting proteins Par3, mInsc and Gαi3. Whereas loss of each gene alone leads to randomized division angles, combined loss of Gnai3 and mInsc causes a phenotype of mostly planar divisions, akin to loss of LGN. These findings lend experimental support for the hitherto untested model that Par3-mInsc and Gαi3 act cooperatively to polarize LGN and promote perpendicular divisions. Finally, we uncover a developmental switch between delamination-driven early stratification and spindle-orientation-dependent differentiation that occurs around E15, revealing a two-step mechanism underlying epidermal maturation.
Subject(s)
Carrier Proteins/physiology , Cell Adhesion Molecules/physiology , Cell Cycle Proteins/physiology , Epidermal Cells , Epidermis/physiology , GTP-Binding Protein alpha Subunits, Gi-Go/physiology , Adaptor Proteins, Signal Transducing , Animals , Body Patterning , Carrier Proteins/antagonists & inhibitors , Carrier Proteins/genetics , Cell Adhesion Molecules/antagonists & inhibitors , Cell Adhesion Molecules/genetics , Cell Cycle Proteins/antagonists & inhibitors , Cell Cycle Proteins/genetics , Cell Differentiation/genetics , Cell Differentiation/physiology , Cell Division/genetics , Cell Division/physiology , Epidermis/embryology , Female , GTP-Binding Protein alpha Subunit, Gi2/antagonists & inhibitors , GTP-Binding Protein alpha Subunit, Gi2/genetics , GTP-Binding Protein alpha Subunit, Gi2/physiology , GTP-Binding Protein alpha Subunits, Gi-Go/antagonists & inhibitors , GTP-Binding Protein alpha Subunits, Gi-Go/genetics , Gene Expression Regulation, Developmental , Gene Knockdown Techniques , Male , Mice , Mice, 129 Strain , Mice, Inbred C57BL , Mice, Transgenic , Models, Biological , Pregnancy , RNA Interference , Spindle Apparatus/physiologyABSTRACT
BACKGROUND: Neuronal guidance cues influence endothelial cell (EC) behavior to shape the embryonic vascular system. The repulsive neuronal guidance cue, Semaphorin 3E (Sema3E), is critical for creating avascular zones that instruct and subsequently pattern the first embryonic vessels, the paired dorsal aortae (DA). Sema3E(-) (/) (-) embryos develop highly branched plexus-like vessels during vasculogenesis, instead of smooth paired vessels. Unexpectedly, despite these severe DA patterning defects, mutant mice are viable throughout adulthood. RESULTS: Examination of Sema3E(-) (/) (-) mice reveals that the plexus-like DA resolve into single, unbranched vessels between embryonic day (E) E8.25 and E8.75. Although fusion of Sema3E(-) (/) (-) DA occurs slightly earlier than in heterozygotes, the DA are otherwise indistinguishable, suggesting a complete "rescue" in their development. Resolution of the DA null plexuses occurs by remodeling rather than by means of changes in cell proliferation or death. CONCLUSIONS: Normalization of Sema3E(-) (/) (-) DA patterning defects demonstrates resilience of embryonic vascular patterning programs. Additional repulsive guidance cues within the lateral plate mesoderm likely re-establish avascular zones lost in Sema3E(-) (/) (-) embryos and guide resolution of mutant plexus into branchless, parallel aortae. Our observations explain how Sema3E(-) (/) (-) mice survive throughout development and into adulthood, despite severe initial vascular defects.
