Sleep and memory consolidation in aging: A neuroimaging perspective.

Recently acquired information is strengthened and consolidated during sleep. For hippocampus-dependent memory, this process is assumed to occur mainly during slow wave sleep. Changes in sleep patterns in older adults can contribute to the disruption of the consolidation process during sleep and thus lead to cognitive impairment. Current findings suggest that reduced gray matter volume, particularly in frontal areas, Aß and tau accumulation in combination with age-related changes of specific oscillations during sleep may contribute to memory deficits. This non-exhaustive review aims at providing a comprehensive picture of the associations between sleep changes and memory consolidation in aging, mainly based on neuroimaging studies. Overall, data confirm the utmost importance of sleep for healthy aging and the need to develop interventions aiming at improving sleep to reduce cognitive decline observed with advancing age.

Impaired decision-making and brain shrinkage in alcoholism.

Alcohol-dependent individuals usually favor instant gratification of alcohol use and ignore its long-term negative consequences, reflecting impaired decision-making. According to the somatic marker hypothesis, decision-making abilities are subtended by an extended brain network. As chronic alcohol consumption is known to be associated with brain shrinkage in this network, the present study investigated relationships between brain shrinkage and decision-making impairments in alcohol-dependent individuals early in abstinence using voxel-based morphometry. Thirty patients performed the Iowa Gambling Task and underwent a magnetic resonance imaging investigation (1.5T). Decision-making performances and brain data were compared with those of age-matched healthy controls. In the alcoholic group, a multiple regression analysis was conducted with two predictors (gray matter [GM] volume and decision-making measure) and two covariates (number of withdrawals and duration of alcoholism). Compared with controls, alcoholics had impaired decision-making and widespread reduced gray matter volume, especially in regions involved in decision-making. The regression analysis revealed links between high GM volume in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, dorsal anterior cingulate cortex and right hippocampal formation, and high decision-making scores (P<0.001, uncorrected). Decision-making deficits in alcoholism may result from impairment of both emotional and cognitive networks.

The neural substrates of musical memory revealed by fMRI and two semantic tasks.

Recognizing a musical excerpt without necessarily retrieving its title typically reflects the existence of a memory system dedicated to the retrieval of musical knowledge. The functional distinction between musical and verbal semantic memory has seldom been investigated. In this fMRI study, we directly compared the musical and verbal memory of 20 nonmusicians, using a congruence task involving automatic semantic retrieval and a familiarity task requiring more thorough semantic retrieval. In the former, participants had to access their semantic store to retrieve musical or verbal representations of melodies or expressions they heard, in order to decide whether these were then given the right ending or not. In the latter, they had to judge the level of familiarity of musical excerpts and expressions. Both tasks revealed activation of the left inferior frontal and posterior middle temporal cortices, suggesting that executive and selection processes are common to both verbal and musical retrievals. Distinct patterns of activation were observed within the left temporal cortex, with musical material mainly activating the superior temporal gyrus and verbal material the middle and inferior gyri. This cortical organization of musical and verbal semantic representations could explain clinical dissociations featuring selective disturbances for musical or verbal material.

[Sleep and episodic memory: a review of the literature in young healthy subjects and potential links between sleep changes and memory impairment observed during aging and Alzheimer's disease]. / Étude des liens entre sommeil et mémoire épisodique chez le sujet jeune et âgé, et dans la maladie d'Alzheimer.

INTRODUCTION: A large body of evidence indicates that sleep favors memory consolidation. STATE OF THE ART: This process would occur, mainly during slow-wave sleep, by means of a dialogue between the hippocampus and neocortical areas. Low levels of acetylcholine and cortisol are also needed to favor the transfer of memory traces toward the neocortex, where they will be stored for the long-term. PERSPECTIVES: The aim of this article is, first, to give an overview of studies conducted in young healthy subjects and underpinning the hypothesis that sleep is involved in memory consolidation. Then, we will investigate the potential links between changes in sleep architecture and episodic memory impairment in both aging and Alzheimer's disease. Finally, we will see how these results can affect clinical practice. CONCLUSION: Sleep-dependent memory consolidation is impaired both in aging and Alzheimer's disease. These findings suggest the importance of taking into account sleep when assessing memory function in patients.

Hemodynamic cerebral correlates of sleep spindles during human non-rapid eye movement sleep.

In humans, some evidence suggests that there are two different types of spindles during sleep, which differ by their scalp topography and possibly some aspects of their regulation. To test for the existence of two different spindle types, we characterized the activity associated with slow (11-13 Hz) and fast (13-15 Hz) spindles, identified as discrete events during non-rapid eye movement sleep, in non-sleep-deprived human volunteers, using simultaneous electroencephalography and functional MRI. An activation pattern common to both spindle types involved the thalami, paralimbic areas (anterior cingulate and insular cortices), and superior temporal gyri. No thalamic difference was detected in the direct comparison between slow and fast spindles although some thalamic areas were preferentially activated in relation to either spindle type. Beyond the common activation pattern, the increases in cortical activity differed significantly between the two spindle types. Slow spindles were associated with increased activity in the superior frontal gyrus. In contrast, fast spindles recruited a set of cortical regions involved in sensorimotor processing, as well as the mesial frontal cortex and hippocampus. The recruitment of partially segregated cortical networks for slow and fast spindles further supports the existence of two spindle types during human non-rapid eye movement sleep, with potentially different functional significance.

[Alzheimer's disease and human memory]. / La maladie d'Alzheimer et la mémoire humaine.

Memory disorders observed in Alzheimer's disease gave rise, from the eighties, to a detailed analysis into the framework of cognitive neuropsychology which aimed at describing the deficits of very specific processes. Beyond their clinical interest, these studies contributed to the modelisation of human memory thanks to the characterization of different memory systems and their relationships. The first part of this paper gives an overview of the memory deficits in Alzheimer's disease and insists on particular cognitive phenomena. Hence, several examples are developed in the domains of semantic memory (such as hyperpriming and hypopriming effects) and autobiographical memory. Recent results highlight the existence of severe autobiographical amnesia observed in all neurodegenerative diseases, though with contrasting profiles: Ribot's gradient in Alzheimer's disease (showing that remote memories are better preserved than recent ones), reverse gradient in semantic dementia and no clear gradient in the frontal variant of frontotemporal dementia. The second part of this article presents advances in cognitive neuroscience searching to disclose the cerebral substrates of these cognitive deficits in Alzheimer's disease. The studies using functional imaging techniques are the most informative regarding this problematic. While showing the dysfunctions of an extended network, they emphasize the selectivity of cerebral damages that are at the root of very specific cognitive dysfunctions, coming close in that way to the conceptions of cognitive neuropsychology. These neuroimaging studies unravel the existence of compensatory mechanisms, which until recently were clearly missing in the literature on neurodegenerative diseases. These different researches lead to a wide conception of human memory, not just limited to simple instrumental processes (encoding, storage, retrieval), but necessarily covering models of identity and continuity of the subject, which interact in a dynamic way with eminently changing memory representations.