Psychological resources and flexibility predict resilient mental health trajectories during the French covid-19 lockdown.

The implementation of lockdowns and the Covid-19 pandemic situation have negatively impacted mental health (anxiety, depression). However, little is known about individual differences in the longitudinal reactions to lockdown. We designed a longitudinal study (a) to identify the various trajectories of symptoms of depression and anxiety in the general population during and after lockdown; (b) to determine which positive psychological resources prevent individuals from falling into groups with the most severe trajectories; (c) to test the mediating role of psychological flexibility. We collected and analysed longitudinal data on a sample of French participants (N = 1399, Mage = 43.4; SDage = 12; 87.8% women) during the end of the first lockdown. Participants were asked to report their psychological resources and (in)flexibility at baseline and symptoms of anxiety and depression at each measurment occasion (five weekly observations from 17 March to 11 May 2020, including baseline). Using growth mixture modelling, seven dynamic profiles of symptoms were identified: four for depression and three for anxiety. Resilience emerged as the most frequent trajectory. Wisdom, optimism, hope, self-efficacy and peaceful disengagement significantly prevented individuals from belonging to the symptomatic groups. Moreover, psychological flexibility emerged as a significant mediator of these effects. This study highlights the importance of cultivating protective factors and psychological flexibility to prevent mental health damage during potentially traumatic events (PTE) and to favour resilience trajectories.

Basic human values during the COVID-19 outbreak, perceived threat and their relationships with compliance with movement restrictions and social distancing.

This study examines the evolution of Schwartz's Basic Human Values during the COVID-19 outbreak, and their relationships with perceived threat, compliance with movement restrictions and social distancing. An online questionnaire was administered to a heterogeneous sample of French citizens (N = 1025) during the first French lockdown related to the outbreak. Results revealed a significant evolution of values; the conservation value was higher during the outbreak than usual, and both self-enhancement and openness-to-change values were lower during the COVID-19 outbreak than usual. Conservation and perceived threat during the outbreak were robustly and positively related to both compliance with movement restrictions and social distancing. Conservation during the outbreak emerged as a significant partial mediator of the relationship between perceived threat and outcomes (i.e., compliance with movement restrictions and social distancing). Implications of these results for the malleability of values and the COVID-19 modelling are discussed.

Psychological Resources Protect Well-Being During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Longitudinal Study During the French Lockdown.

This longitudinal study investigated the capability of various positive psychological resources to directly or indirectly protect specific well-being outcomes and moderate the effects on well-being of health and economic threats in a lockdown situation during the 2020 health crisis in France. At the beginning of lockdown (wave 1), participants (N = 470) completed self-assessment questionnaires to document their initial level of well-being and state of nine different well-established psychological resources, measured as traits: optimism, hope, self-efficacy, gratitude toward the world, self-transcendence, wisdom, gratitude of being, peaceful disengagement, and acceptance. Three weeks later, a weekly follow-up was started to record changes in well-being and reported threats for a duration of 5 weeks (waves 2-6). Results show that psychological resources efficiently protected well-being in a variety of ways: they buffered the adverse effects of reported threats to health and wealth, increased the well-being averages, and reduced the decline in well-being over time. More specifically, emotional well-being was positively predicted by hope, gratitude of being, and, to a lesser level, by acceptance; psychological well-being by self-efficacy, personal wisdom, and gratitude of being; social well-being only by gratitude toward the world; and inner well-being by optimism, gratitude of being, and acceptance. The study emphasizes the importance of cultivating psychological resources in ordinary times to protect individuals' well-being when difficult and extraordinary circumstances occur. It also offers clues to the kind of resources one may want to develop.

Using theta and alpha band power to assess cognitive workload in multitasking environments.

Cognitive workload is of central importance in the fields of human factors and ergonomics. A reliable measurement of cognitive workload could allow for improvements in human machine interface designs and increase safety in several domains. At present, numerous studies have used electroencephalography (EEG) to assess cognitive workload, reporting the rise in cognitive workload to be associated with increases in theta band power and decreases in alpha band power. However, results have been inconsistent with some failing to reach the required level of significance. We hypothesized that the lack of consistency could be related to individual differences in task performance and/or to the small sample sizes in most EEG studies. In the present study we used EEG to assess the increase in cognitive workload occurring in a multitasking environment while taking into account differences in performance. Twenty participants completed a task commonly used in airline pilot recruitment, which included an increasing number of concurrent sub-tasks to be processed from one to four. Subjective ratings, performances scores, pupil size and EEG signals were recorded. Results showed that increases in EEG alpha and theta band power reflected increases in the involvement of cognitive resources for the completion of one to three subtasks in a multitasking environment. These values reached a ceiling when performances dropped. Consistent differences in levels of alpha and theta band power were associated to levels of task performance: highest performance was related to lowest band power.

Differences in Multitask Resource Reallocation After Change in Task Values.

OBJECTIVE: The objective was to characterize multitask resource reallocation strategies when managing subtasks with various assigned values. BACKGROUND: When solving a resource conflict in multitasking, Salvucci and Taatgen predict a globally rational strategy will be followed that favors the most urgent subtask and optimizes global performance. However, Katidioti and Taatgen identified a locally rational strategy that optimizes only a subcomponent of the whole task, leading to detrimental consequences on global performance. Moreover, the question remains open whether expertise would have an impact on the choice of the strategy. METHOD: We adopted a multitask environment used for pilot selection with a change in emphasis on two out of four subtasks while all subtasks had to be maintained over a minimum performance. A laboratory eye-tracking study contrasted 20 recently selected pilot students considered as experienced with this task and 15 university students considered as novices. RESULTS: When two subtasks were emphasized, novices focused their resources particularly on one high-value subtask and failed to prevent both low-value subtasks falling below minimum performance. On the contrary, experienced people delayed the processing of one low-value subtask but managed to optimize global performance. CONCLUSION: In a multitasking environment where some subtasks are emphasized, novices follow a locally rational strategy whereas experienced participants follow a globally rational strategy. APPLICATION: During complex training, trainees are only able to adjust their resource allocation strategy to subtask emphasis changes once they are familiar with the multitasking environment.

Fuzzy-TLX: using fuzzy integrals for evaluating human mental workload with NASA-Task Load indeX in laboratory and field studies.

The aim of this study was to assess mental workload in which various load sources must be integrated to derive reliable workload estimates. We report a new algorithm for computing weights from qualitative fuzzy integrals and apply it to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration -Task Load indeX (NASA-TLX) subscales in order to replace the standard pair-wise weighting technique (PWT). In this paper, two empirical studies were reported: (1) In a laboratory experiment, age- and task-related variables were investigated in 53 male volunteers and (2) In a field study, task- and job-related variables were studied on aircrews during 48 commercial flights. The results found in this study were as follows: (i) in the experimental setting, fuzzy estimates were highly correlated with classical (using PWT) estimates; (ii) in real work conditions, replacing PWT by automated fuzzy treatments simplified the NASA-TLX completion; (iii) the algorithm for computing fuzzy estimates provides a new classification procedure sensitive to various variables of work environments and (iv) subjective and objective measures can be used for the fuzzy aggregation of NASA-TLX subscales. PRACTITIONER SUMMARY: NASA-TLX, a classical tool for mental workload assessment, is based on a weighted sum of ratings from six subscales. A new algorithm, which impacts on input data collection and computes weights and indexes from qualitative fuzzy integrals, is evaluated through laboratory and field studies. Pros and cons are discussed.

Non-bayesian inference: causal structure trumps correlation.

The study tests the hypothesis that conditional probability judgments can be influenced by causal links between the target event and the evidence even when the statistical relations among variables are held constant. Three experiments varied the causal structure relating three variables and found that (a) the target event was perceived as more probable when it was linked to evidence by a causal chain than when both variables shared a common cause; (b) predictive chains in which evidence is a cause of the hypothesis gave rise to higher judgments than diagnostic chains in which evidence is an effect of the hypothesis; and (c) direct chains gave rise to higher judgments than indirect chains. A Bayesian learning model was applied to our data but failed to explain them. An explanation-based hypothesis stating that statistical information will affect judgments only to the extent that it changes beliefs about causal structure is consistent with the results.

Politeness and conditional reasoning: interpersonal cues to the indirect suppression of deductive inferences.

A successful theory of conditional reasoning requires an account of how reasoners recognize the pragmatic function a conditional statement is meant to perform. Situations in which it is ambiguous whether a conditional statement was meant to add information or to correct a mistake are discussed in this article. This ambiguity has direct consequences on the way reasoners update their beliefs and derive conclusions. In an analysis of ambiguity from the perspective of politeness theory, the authors suggest that any contextual factor that increases the face threat of a correction will encourage reasoners to construe the ambiguous conditional as a correction. This construal will impact their beliefs about the piece of information that is ambiguously corrected, and their beliefs will affect the deductive conclusions they are willing to draw. This nested mediation structure was observed in 2 experiments. The first experiment manipulated the threat level of a correction through the portrayed personality of the person being corrected; the second experiment manipulated the affective distance between the corrector and the corrected.

Utilitarian relevance and face management in the interpretation of ambiguous question/request statements.

Often, requests are made in an indirect manner and phrased in such a way that they can also be construed as questions. For example, the sentence "Is there any coffee left?" can be construed either as a question about coffee or as a request for coffee. This article offers a combined test of some key predictions of two approaches to the disambiguation of question/request statements: (1) the face management approach, which gives a prominent role to variables such as status and potential loss of face; and (2) the utilitarian relevance approach, which gives a prominent role to the goals pursued by the speaker at the time he or she issues the statement. Ambiguous question/request statements provide a natural test bed for the latter approach in particular. A board game paradigm is developed to allow for a clean, orthogonal manipulation of all variables. The results wholly support the utilitarian relevance approach and offer new perspectives on the face management approach.

Determinants of conflict detection: a model of risk judgments in air traffic control.

OBJECTIVE: A model of conflict judgments in air traffic control (ATC) is proposed. BACKGROUND: Three horizontal distances determine risk judgments about conflict between two aircraft: (a) Dt(o) is the distance between the crossing of the aircraft trajectories and the first aircraft to reach that point; (b) Dt(h) is the distance between the two aircraft when they are horizontally closest; and (c) Dt(v) is the horizontal distance between the two aircraft when their growing vertical distance reaches 1000 feet. METHODS: Two experiments tested whether the variables in the model reflect what controllers do. In Experiment 1, 125 certified controllers provided risk judgments about situations in which the model variables were manipulated. Experiment 2 investigated the relationship between the model and expertise by comparing a population of certified controllers with a population of ATC students. RESULTS: Across both experiments, the model accounted for 44% to 50% of the variance in risk judgments by certified controllers (N=161) but only 20% in judgments by ATC students (N=88). There were major individual differences in the predictive power of the model as well as in the contributions of the three variables. In Experiment 2, the model described experts better than novices. CONCLUSION: The model provided a satisfying account of the data, albeit with substantial individual differences. It is argued that an individual-differences approach is required when investigating the strategies involved in conflict judgment in ATC. APPLICATION: These findings should have implications for developing user-friendly interfaces with conflict detection devices and for devising ATC training programs.

Processing of normal, inverted, and scrambled faces in a patient with prosopagnosia: behavioural and eye tracking data.

In this study, we addressed the issue of a spared processing of faces in a patient (SB) with severe prosopagnosia. We designed an experiment comprising of two parts. In Part I, normal upright faces were entwined with scrambled faces, while in Part II normal upright faces were mixed with inverted faces, under unlimited time exposure. Performance, decision times, and eye movements were measured in both parts. The results indicated that SB categorised the normal faces better in the context of inverted faces than in the context of scrambled faces. Furthermore, SB's performance was better for the inverted faces than for the scrambled faces. Overall, SB performed better on the abnormal faces than on the normal faces, as did the control participants. Eye-tracking data showed that the pattern observed for the number of fixations and for exploration order was similar in SB and in controls. In the discussion, we propose that, despite his severe prosopagnosia, SB might have retained some kind of processing specific to face perception. Further investigations will be required, using limited time exposure, to determine the nature of this spared processing.

Pain rating by patients and physicians: evidence of systematic pain miscalibration.

This study is an investigation of the existence and potential causes of systematic differences between patients and physicians in their assessments of the intensity of patients' pain. In an emergency department in France, patients (N=200) and their physicians (N=48) rated the patients' pain using a visual analog scale, both on arrival and at discharge. Results showed, in confirmation of previous studies, that physicians gave significantly lower ratings than did patients of the patients' pain both on arrival (mean difference -1.33, standard error (SE)=0.17, on a scale of 0-10, P<0.001) and at exit (-1.38, SE=0.15, P<0.001). The extent of 'miscalibration' was greater with expert than novice physicians and depended on interactions among physician gender, patient gender, and the obviousness of the cause of pain. Thus physicians' pain ratings may have been affected by non-medical factors.

Measuring dynamic bipolarity in positive and negative activation.

The dynamic bipolarity of the positive and negative affective activation, measured with the PANAS scales, was studied using a pre-post design with an intervening experiment. The correlations between (a) the initial positive and negative constructs and (b) the respective change scores were estimated, random and systematic error being removed owing to a convenient structural equation modeling technique. Results demonstrated that a moderate perturbation may induce a medium correlation between latent change scores. Both strict dynamic independence and bipolarity were rejected. This result highlights the importance of individual differences in the way people perceive their affective changes. It is concluded that the PANAS two-factor model of affect provides only an approximate view of the structure and dynamics of mood.

Implicit face perception in a patient with visual agnosia? Evidence from behavioural and eye-tracking analyses.

This paper investigates face perception in a visual agnosic and prosopagnosic patient (SB). Despite very extensive lesions of visual areas, SB remains capable of some visual processing [Brain 125 (2002) 58]. However, in everyday situations SB does not exhibit signs of specific face recognition. To investigate how SB may process faces, we tested two hypotheses. According to the 'spared module hypothesis,' SBs abilities come from spared modules of implicit face processing. According to the 'general strategy hypothesis,' SB may have developed some deliberate compensatory strategies. A two-session experimental design was constructed. In both sessions, face and non-face pictures were shown to participants. In Session 1 (implicit condition), participants had to decide whether each picture was a vegetable. In Session 2 (explicit condition), participants had to decide whether each picture was a face. Verbal reports showed that SB was not aware of faces in Session 1. However, behavioural results showed that (1). SB could process faces; (2). even when SB was not aware of faces, he processed them differently than non-faces; (3). when knowing the presence of faces, he did not process faces better. In addition, eye-tracking data suggested that SB did not change the nature of his processing from Sessions 1 to 2. Pupil diameters showed that fixated facial features were processed similarly as in control participants. Together, these results are not compatible with a general compensatory strategy hypothesis and suggest sparing of an implicit face processing module in SB.