A retrospective analysis of the duration of mechanical ventilation in Scandinavian paediatric heart centres.

AIM: Early extubation after cardiac surgery shortens paediatric intensive care unit (PICU) length of stay (LOS) and decreases complications from mechanical ventilation (MV). We explored the duration of MV in Scandinavian paediatric heart centres. METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed the MV duration and PICU LOS of 696 children operated for atrial septal defect (ASD), ventricular septal defect (VSD), tetralogy of Fallot (TOF) or total cavopulmonary connection (TCPC) in four Scandinavian centres in 2015-2016. Neonates (n = 90) were included regardless of heart surgery type. RESULTS: Patients with ASD were extubated at a median of 3.25 h (interquartile range [IQR] 2.00-4.83), followed by patients with TCPC (median 5.00 h, IQR 2.60-16.83), VSD (median 7.00 h, IQR 3.69-22.25) and TOF (median 18.08 h, IQR 6.00-41.38). Neonates were not extubated early (median 94.42 h, IQR 45.03-138.14). Although MV durations were reflected in PICU LOS, this was not as apparent among those extubated within 12 h. The Swedish centres had shortest MV durations and PICU LOS. Extubation failed in 24/696 (3.4%) of patients. CONCLUSION: Scandinavian paediatric heart centres differed in the duration of postoperative MV. Deferring extubation up to 12 h postoperatively did not markedly prolong PICU LOS.

New-onset type 1 diabetes in Finnish children during the COVID-19 pandemic.

BACKGROUND: Viral infections may trigger type 1 diabetes (T1D), and recent reports suggest an increased incidence of paediatric T1D and/or diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) during the COVID-19 pandemic. OBJECTIVE: To study whether the number of children admitted to the paediatric intensive care unit (PICU) for DKA due to new-onset T1D increased during the COVID-19 pandemic, and whether SARS-CoV-2 infection plays a role. METHODS: This retrospective cohort study comprises two datasets: (1) children admitted to PICU due to new-onset T1D and (2) children diagnosed with new-onset T1D and registered to the Finnish Pediatric Diabetes Registry in the Helsinki University Hospital from 1 April to 31 October in 2016-2020. We compared the incidence, number and characteristics of children with newly diagnosed T1D between the prepandemic and pandemic periods. RESULTS: The number of children admitted to PICU due to new-onset T1D increased from an average of 6.25 admissions in 2016-2019 to 20 admissions in 2020 (incidence rate ratio [IRR] 3.24 [95% CI 1.80 to 5.83]; p=0.0001). On average, 57.75 children were registered to the FPDR in 2016-2019, as compared with 84 in 2020 (IRR 1.45; 95% CI 1.13 to 1.86; p=0.004). 33 of the children diagnosed in 2020 were analysed for SARS-CoV-2 antibodies, and all were negative. CONCLUSIONS: More children with T1D had severe DKA at diagnosis during the pandemic. This was not a consequence of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Instead, it probably stems from delays in diagnosis following changes in parental behaviour and healthcare accessibility.

Renal function and inflammatory response in neonates undergoing cardiac surgery with or without antegrade cerebral perfusion-a post hoc analysis.

Background: Cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) may lead to tissue hypoxia, inflammatory response, and risk for acute kidney injury (AKI). We evaluated the prevalence of AKI and inflammatory response in neonates undergoing heart surgery requiring CPB with or without antegrade cerebral perfusion (ACP). Methods: Forty neonates were enrolled. The patients were divided into two groups depending on the use of ACP. AKI was classified based on the Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) criteria. Inflammatory response was measured using plasma concentrations of interleukins 6 (IL-6) and 10 (IL-10), white blood cell count (WBC), and C-reactive protein (CRP). Results: Eight patients (20%) experienced AKI: five (29%) in the ACP group and three (13%) in the non-ACP group (P = 0.25). Postoperative peak plasma creatinine and urine neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin were significantly higher in the ACP group than in the non-ACP group [46.0 (35.0-60.5) vs 37.5 (33.0-42.5), P = 0.044 and 118.0 (55.4-223.7) vs 29.8 (8.1-109.2), P = 0.02, respectively]. Four patients in the ACP group and one in the non-ACP group required peritoneal dialysis (P = 0.003). Postoperative plasma IL-6, IL-10, and CRP increased significantly in both groups. There were no significant differences between the ACP and non-ACP groups in any of the inflammatory parameters measured. Conclusions: No significant difference in the AKI occurrence or inflammatory response related to CPB modality could be found. In our study population, inflammation was not the key factor leading to AKI. Due to the limited number of patients, these findings should be interpreted with caution.

A Reductive Metabolic Switch Protects Infants with Transposition of Great Arteries Undergoing Atrial Septostomy against Oxidative Stress.

Transposition of the great arteries (TGA) is one of the most common cyanotic congenital heart diseases requiring neonatal surgical intervention. Parallel circulations that result in impaired cerebral oxygen delivery already in utero may lead to brain damage and long-term neurodevelopmental delay. Balloon atrial septostomy (BAS) is often employed to mix deoxygenated and oxygenated blood at the atrial level. However, BAS causes a sudden increase in arterial blood oxygenation and oxidative stress. We studied changes in oxygen saturation as well as metabolic profiles of plasma samples from nine newborn infants suffering from TGA before and until 48 h after undergoing BAS. The plasma metabolome clearly changed over time and alterations of four metabolic pathways, including the pentose phosphate pathway, were linked to changes in the cerebral tissue oxygen extraction. In contrast, no changes in levels of lipid peroxidation biomarkers over time were observed. These observations suggest that metabolic adaptations buffer the free radical burst triggered by re-oxygenation, thereby avoiding structural damage at the macromolecular level. This study enhances our understanding of the complex response of infants with TGA to changes in oxygenation induced by BAS.

Overlooking the Obvious during the COVID-19 Pandemic: Dyspnoea with Asymmetric Breath Sounds in a Toddler.

BACKGROUND: Paediatric healthcare specialists are concerned about the secondary effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on children. We report a case of acute respiratory distress in a healthy toddler whose healthcare providers were sidetracked from the correct diagnosis by suspicion of COVID-19. Case Presentation. The patient was a 20-month-old healthy boy. In the morning, he had coughed while drinking milk. He was asymptomatic for the day but presented with acute respiratory distress when lying down in the evening. An ambulance was called, and he was taken to a tertiary hospital's paediatric emergency department, where his condition and oxygen saturation fluctuated. He had mildly elevated temperature and petechiae on his trunk, showed asymmetrical radiographic and auscultatory pulmonary findings, and did not tolerate any exertion. Pneumonia was suspected, SARS-CoV-2 was considered as potential causative agent, and the child was admitted to a Paediatric Intensive Care Unit. As the patient did not show clear signs of infection or bronchial obstruction, the events were thoroughly rediscussed with the caregiver next morning. It was then found out that the child had also been eating cashew nuts. Multiple pieces of cashew nuts were removed from the left bronchial tree in a bronchoscopy. After the procedure, all symptoms promptly resolved. Foreign body aspiration-an obvious cause of acute respiratory distress in our patient's age group-was overlooked by experienced emergency medical care providers and paediatric critical care physicians due to the slightly unusual presentation, incomplete anamnestic information, and a bias to consider COVID-19 in the current exceptional circumstances. CONCLUSIONS: Emergency care providers are instructed to consider all patients with respiratory distress as potential COVID-19 patients. However, the clinical course of COVID-19 infection is usually mild in children. Therefore, alternative causes for serious breathing difficulty are more likely, and all differential diagnoses should be considered in the usual unbiased manner.

Lung Injury After Neonatal Congenital Cardiac Surgery Is Mild and Modifiable by Corticosteroids.

OBJECTIVES: The present study was performed to determine whether lung injury manifests as lung edema in neonates after congenital cardiac surgery and whether a stress-dose corticosteroid (SDC) regimen attenuates postoperative lung injury in neonates after congenital cardiac surgery. DESIGN: A supplementary report of a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled clinical trial. SETTING: A pediatric tertiary university hospital. PARTICIPANTS: Forty neonates (age ≤28 days) undergoing congenital cardiac surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass. INTERVENTIONS: After anesthesia induction, patients were assigned randomly to receive intravenously either 2 mg/kg methylprednisolone or placebo b, which was followed by hydrocortisone or placebo bolus six hours after weaning from CPB for five days as follows: 0.2 mg/kg/h for 48 hours, 0.1 mg/kg/h for the next 48 hours, and 0.05 mg/kg/h for the following 24 hours. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: The chest radiography lung edema score was lower in the SDC than in the placebo group on the first postoperative day (POD one) (p = 0.03) and on PODs two and three (p = 0.03). Furthermore, a modest increase in the edema score of 0.9 was noted in the placebo group, whereas the edema score remained at the preoperative level in the SDC group. Postoperative dynamic respiratory system compliance was higher in the SDC group until POD three (p < 0.01). However, postoperative oxygenation; length of mechanical ventilation; and tracheal aspirate biomarkers of inflammation and oxidative stress, namely interleukin-6, interleukin-8, resistin, and 8-isoprostane, showed no differences between the groups. CONCLUSIONS: The SDC regimen reduced the development of mild and likely clinically insignificant radiographic lung edema and improved postoperative dynamic respiratory system compliance without adverse events, but it failed to improve postoperative oxygenation and length of mechanical ventilation.

School Performance After Pediatric Intensive Care-Association of Mental Well-Being, Chronic Illnesses, and Family Socioeconomic Status.

OBJECTIVES: To describe school performance in pediatric intensive care survivors, as well as the influence of chronic diseases, psychological well-being, and family socioeconomic status on poor school performance. DESIGN: Register-based observational descriptive follow-up study. SETTING: A multicenter national study. PATIENTS: All pediatric patients who were admitted to an ICU in Finland in 2009-2010. Children and adolescents of or beyond school age. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Questionnaires regarding the child's coping in school classes, chronic illnesses, as well as family socioeconomic factors were sent to every child alive 6 years after discharge from intensive care in Finland. Mental well-being was measured with the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. There were 1,109 responders in an ICU group of 3,674 children. Seven-hundred fifty-three of the respondents were of school age or older. Of these, 13% (101/753) demonstrated poor school performance. Children with difficulties in school more often had a need for regular medication (71.3% vs 32.4%; p < 0.001), healthcare visits (91.1% vs 80.6%; p = 0.01), some regular therapy (60.4% vs 13.7%; p < 0.001), chronic illnesses (86.3% vs 48.4%; p < 0.001), or additional ICU admissions (36.5% vs 14.9%; p = 0.003). Schooling difficulties were reported more often in children with abnormal Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire scores compared to those with normal or borderline scores (24.8% vs 5.4%; p < 0.001). In an adjusted logistic regression model, which included age, number of chronic diseases, and need for therapy, poor school performance was predicted by abnormal Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire scores, nonacademic parental education, and paternal manual labor status. CONCLUSIONS: Difficulties in school were more frequent when the child had chronic comorbid illnesses, especially neurologic or chromosomal abnormalities, had poor mental health, father was employed in manual labor, or parents were uneducated.

Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire Assessment of Long-Term Psychological Outcome in Children After Intensive Care Admission.

OBJECTIVES: We investigated the long-term psychologic symptoms of patients who survived pediatric intensive care admission. DESIGN: Longitudinal follow-up study. SETTING: Nationwide cohort study based on a national ICU register and a questionnaire survey. PATIENTS: All pediatric patients (0-16 yr old) who were admitted to an ICU in Finland in 2009-2010. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Six years after ICU admission, all surviving patients were sent the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, and questionnaires regarding chronic diseases and need for medication and therapy. At the end of the follow-up period, there were 3,674 surviving children who had been admitted to an ICU in 2009-2010. Of these children, 1,105 completed the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire 6 years after admission. Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire scores were abnormal for 84 children (7.6%), borderline for 80 (7.2%), and normal for 941 (85.2%). Participants with abnormal scores were younger at admission to the ICU (3.06 vs 4.70 yr; p = 0.02), and more commonly had a chronic disease (79.5% vs 47.4%; p < 0.001), a need for continuous medication (49.4% vs 31.7%; p < 0.001), a need for therapy (58.5% vs 15.9%; p < 0.001), and a need for annual healthcare visits (91.4% vs 85.2%; p = 0.05). Abnormal Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire scores were associated with higher rates of neurologic (32.1% vs 10.2%), gastrointestinal (7.1% vs 3.9%), psychiatric (3.6% vs 0.5%), and chromosomal disorders (9.5% vs 1.3%), as well as with long-term pain (1.2% vs 0.6%). CONCLUSIONS: Participants with abnormal Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire scores (poor psychologic outcome) at 6 years after childhood ICU admission more commonly suffered neurologic, chromosomal, or psychiatric diagnoses or long-term pain, and generally required higher levels of healthcare services, therapies, and medication.

Complete Atrioventricular Septal Defect: Evolution of Results in a Single Center During 50 Years.

BACKGROUND: Operative mortality after complete atrioventricular septal defect (cAVSD) repair has improved vastly. Less improvement has been demonstrated regarding late mortality and reoperation rates, however. There is evident lack of comprehensive population-based studies analyzing the history and progress of the ever-changing operative results. METHODS: This is a 5-million population-based retrospective study of consecutive 388 cAVSD patients operated in Finland between 1962 and 2014. Data were collected using Children's Cardiac Surgical Registry of Children's Hospital at the Helsinki University Hospital, Finland. Mortality data and reoperation rates were analyzed on a decade-by-decade basis. RESULTS: During the early era, overall mortality was 17.4%, operative mortality constituting 10.9%. The operative results have improved significantly over the decades, and eventually, the last decade showed no mortality. A total of 23 late deaths occurred; of these, 20 were directly heart-related. Half of the late mortality occurred during the first postoperative year. The only significant risk factor for overall mortality was an earlier decade of operation (p < 0.001). Reoperation rates have not decreased but slightly increased over decades (p = 0.621), and reoperations have been performed mainly during the first year after the primary operation. Actuarial freedom from left side atrioventricular valve reoperation at 15 years was 90.9%. CONCLUSIONS: There has been an outstanding improvement in surgical results through the years even though the general operative approach has remained the same. Rates of reoperation have not been declining, but the reoperations are dated to early childhood years. The improvement in results has been ongoing.

Factors associated with health-related quality of life 6 years after ICU discharge in a Finnish paediatric population: a cohort study.

PURPOSE: Long-term data are urgently needed in children after intensive care. The aim of this study was to measure health-related quality of life 6 years after intensive care in a paediatric intensive care population. METHODS: This national, multicentre study enrolled all children and young people admitted to intensive care units (ICUs) in Finland in 2009 and 2010. The data concerning ICU stay were collected retrospectively from the ICU data registries and combined with prospective data from Paediatric Quality of Life Inventory (PedsQL 4.0) questionnaires, the generic 15D, 16D or 17D instrument, and data regarding children's chronic diagnoses and need for healthcare support. RESULTS: The questionnaires were answered by 1109 of 3682 living children and adolescents admitted to an ICU, response rate was 30.1%. Among the responders, 90 children (8.4%) had poor (under - 2 SD) PedsQL scores. Children with low scores had a higher rate of chronic diagnoses (94.4% vs. 47.6%), medication on a daily basis (78.7% vs. 29.4%) and a greater need for healthcare services (97.7% vs. 82.2%) than those with normal scores. Diagnoses associated with poor quality of life were asthma, epilepsy, cerebral palsy and other neurological diseases, chromosomal alterations, cancer and long-term pain. These children were mostly admitted electively, and less frequently on an emergency basis, but no other significant differences were found during the intensive care stay. CONCLUSIONS: The long-term quality of life after paediatric intensive care is good for the majority of children and young people, and it is dependent on the number of chronic diagnoses and the burden of the chronic disease, especially neurological diseases.

Ventilator-derived dynamic respiratory system compliance: Comparison with static compliance in children.

Measurement of dynamic lung compliance during breathing requires measurement of esophageal pressure, whereas static respiratory system compliance (Crs) method requires several airway occlusions. Despite their precision these compliance methods are cumbersome and not suitable for evaluation of pulmonary system in intensive care. The current ventilators display dynamic Crs, which, however, is seldom utilized in clinical practice. We studied the feasibility of ventilator-derived dynamic Crs measurement in pulmonary evaluation after congenital cardiac surgery in children. In 50 children static Crs was measured by double-occlusion technique, and compared with simultaneous ventilator-derived dynamic Crs values. The early postoperative dynamic and static Crs showed a correlation (r = 0.57, p < 0.0001), but static Crs was 48% higher than dynamic (p < 0.0001). Dynamic Crs measurement showed no correlation with radiographic lung edema findings, whereas the static Crs showed a negative correlation with radiographic lung edema scoring (r = -0.50, p = 0.0002). Thus ventilator-derived dynamic Crs seems less reliable in postoperative pulmonary evaluation than static Crs.

Five-Year Survival and Causes of Death in Children After Intensive Care-A National Registry Study.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of the study was to compare long-term mortality and causes of death in children post admission to an ICU with a control population of same age. DESIGN: Longitudinal follow-up study. SETTING: Registry study of a national ICU register and hospital registries. PATIENTS: Children admitted to an ICU in the years 2009 and 2010. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: The mortality and causes of death following ICU discharge were analyzed retrospectively. The median follow-up period was 4.9 years (25-75th percentiles, 4.4-5.5 yr). The causes of death in survivors 30 days after ICU discharge were compared with a cohort of 1 million children of the general population of same age. In total, 2,792 children were admitted to an ICU during the study period. Of those, 53 (1.9%) died in the ICU and 2,739 were discharged. Thirteen children died within 30 days of discharge, and 68 died between 30 days and the end of follow-up (December 31, 2014). In the control population (n = 1,020,407 children), there were 1,037 deaths (0.10%) from 2009 to 2014. The standardized mortality rate for the children admitted to the ICU during the study period was 53.4 (95% CI, 44.7-63.2). The standardized mortality rate for those children alive 1 year after discharge was 16.7 (12.1-22.6). One-year cumulative mortality was 3.3%. The most common causes of death in subjects alive 30 days post ICU were cancer (35.3%), neurologic (17.6%), and metabolic diseases (11.7%), whereas trauma was the most common cause in the control group (45.3%). CONCLUSIONS: There was an increased risk of death in a cohort of ICU-admitted children even 3 years after discharge. In those who survived 30 days after discharge, medical causes of death were dominant, whereas deaths due to trauma were most common in the control group.

Stress-Dose Corticosteroid Versus Placebo in Neonatal Cardiac Operations: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

BACKGROUND: Corticosteroids can improve the hemodynamic status of neonates with postoperative low cardiac output syndrome after cardiac operations. This study compared a prophylactically administered stress-dose corticosteroid (SDC) regimen against placebo on inflammation, adrenocortical function, and hemodynamic outcome. METHODS: Forty neonates undergoing elective open heart operations were randomized into two groups. The SDC group received perioperatively 2 mg/kg methylprednisolone, and 6 hours after the operation, a hydrocortisone infusion (0.2 mg/kg/h) was started with tapering doses for 5 days. Placebo was administered in a similar fashion. An adrenocorticotropic hormone stimulation test was performed after the therapy. The primary endpoint of the study was plasma concentration of interleukin (IL-6). Secondary clinical outcomes included plasma cortisol, IL-10, C-reactive protein, echocardiographic systemic ventricle contractility evaluated by the Velocity Vector Imaging program, the inotropic score, and time of delayed sternal closure. RESULTS: The IL-6 values of the SDC group were significantly lower postoperatively than in the placebo group. Significantly lower inotropic scores (p < 0.05), earlier sternal closure (p = 0.03), and less deterioration in the systemic ventricle mean delta strain values between the preoperative and the first postoperative assessment (p = 0.01) were detected for the SDC group. The SDC therapy did not suppress the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis more than placebo. The mean plasma cortisol level did not decline in the placebo group after the operation. CONCLUSIONS: The SDC regimen for 5 days postoperatively in neonates was safe and did not cause suppression of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Furthermore, the open heart operation per se did not lead to adrenal insufficiency in neonates.

The Hemodynamic Effects and Safety of Repetitive Levosimendan Infusions on Children With Dilated Cardiomyopathy.

BACKGROUND: Limited treatment options are available for children with decompensated dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM), while they wait for either functional recovery or heart transplantation. We evaluated the safety of repetitive levosimendan infusions and short-term and long-term impacts of the therapy in this patient population. METHODS: Eighty-one repetitive levosimendan infusions administered to 20 patients with DCM at severe or end stage of the disease in the pediatric intensive care unit were analyzed retrospectively. Echocardiographic assessments were reinterpreted by two experienced pediatric cardiologists. The mean follow-up time after therapy was 9.8 ± 3.3 years. RESULTS: The median age of the patients at the time of the first levosimendan infusion was 1.1 years (interquartile range: 0.3-2.1). Transient hypotension was reported in 17.3% of the infusions. No significant changes in the mean ejection fraction were detected after repetitive levosimendan infusion (31.6 ± 12.5 vs 33.1 ± 12.4; P = .39) or for the laboratory parameters for the group as a whole. In 7 (35%) of 20 patients, the mean ejection fraction improved from 20% ± 12% to 35% ± 11% ( P = .003). The administration of concomitant medications and time may have contributed to the healing process of these patients. Two patients were removed from the transplantation waiting-list owing to clinical recovery after six months of therapy. The long-term survival rate was 70% (n = 14 of 20). CONCLUSIONS: Repetitive levosimendan infusions in children with DCM appeared to be hemodynamically well tolerated without severe adverse events. Although one-third of the children had a good response to repetitive levosimendan infusions, no overall significant improvement in ventricular performance could be found in this heterogenous DCM patient population, which included the patients in end-stage heart failure.

Assessment of extravascular lung water by ultrasound after congenital cardiac surgery.

BACKGROUND: Lung ultrasounds show vertical artifacts known as B-lines in the presence of increased extravascular lung water (EVLW). We aimed to investigate whether lung ultrasound could estimate EVLW after congenital cardiac surgery. METHODS: This prospective observational study comprised 61 children (age range 3 days to 7.4 years) undergoing congenital cardiac surgery. We compared postoperative B-line scores from lung ultrasounds, early postoperative ultrasound as our primary interest, with corresponding postoperative chest radiography (CXR) lung edema scores, with static lung compliance, and with short-term clinical outcome interpreted as time on mechanical ventilation and length of pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) stay. RESULTS: Our findings showed lung ultrasound B-line scores and CXR lung edema scores as correlating 1-6 hr postoperatively (r2 = 0.41, P < 0.0001), on the first postoperative day (r2 = 0.15, P = 0.004) and on the fourth postoperative day (r2 = 0.28, P = 0.008). The B-line score or CXR lung edema score showed no correlation with lung compliance. We found that in multivariable analyses, with length of perfusion and presence of postoperative complications as covariates, both lung ultrasound (P ≤ 0.02) and CXR (P ≤ 0.002) 1-6 hr postoperatively predicted the length of mechanical ventilation and PICU stay. The interobserver variability was less for lung ultrasound B-line score than for CXR lung edema score (P = 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Our results show that lung ultrasound in assessment of postoperative EVLW predicted length of mechanical ventilation and stay in the PICU, and it had less interobserver variability than CXR. Accordingly, lung ultrasound may complement CXR in assessment of lung edema after surgery for congenital heart defect. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2017;52:345-352. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

The effect of continuous wound infusion of ropivacaine on postoperative pain after median sternotomy and mediastinal drain in children.

BACKGROUND: Postoperative pain after median sternotomy is usually treated with i.v. opioids. We hypothesized that continuous wound infusion of ropivacaine decreases postoperative morphine consumption and improves analgesia in children who undergo cardiac surgery. METHODS: This randomized, double-blind study comprised 49 children aged 1-9 years who underwent atrial septal defect (ASD) closure. Patients received continuous local anesthetic wound infiltration either with 0.2% ropivacaine, 0.3-0.4 mg·kg(-1) ·h(-1) (Group R) or with saline (Group C). Rescue morphine consumption, Objective Pain Scale (OPS), time to mobilization, time to enteral food intake, and time to discharge were recorded. RESULTS: There were no statistically significant differences in morphine consumption at 24, 48, and 72 h postsurgery between R and C groups. There was a weak evidence for a difference in the time to the first morphine administration after tracheal extubation to be longer for Group R than Group C (186.2 vs 81.0 min; 95% CI (-236.5, 26.2), P = 0.114). The incidence of nausea and vomiting were comparable between the groups. No signs or symptoms of local anesthetic toxicity were registered. CONCLUSIONS: Contrary to our hypothesis, continuous ropivacaine wound infusion did not reduce morphine consumption, pain score values, or nausea and vomiting in children who underwent ASD closure with median sternotomy and mediastinal drain.

Chronic Hypoxemia in Children With Congenital Heart Defect Impairs Airway Epithelial Sodium Transport.

OBJECTIVE: Ambient hypoxia impairs the airway epithelial Na transport, which is crucial in lung edema reabsorption. Whether chronic systemic hypoxemia affects airway Na transport has remained largely unknown. We have therefore investigated whether chronic systemic hypoxemia in children with congenital heart defect affects airway epithelial Na transport, Na transporter-gene expression, and short-term lung edema accumulation. DESIGN: Prospective, observational study. SETTING: Tertiary care medical center responsible for nationwide pediatric cardiac surgery. PATIENTS: Ninety-nine children with congenital heart defect or acquired heart disease (age range, 6 d to 14.8 yr) were divided into three groups based on their level of preoperative systemic hypoxemia: 1) normoxemic patients (SpO2% ≥ 95%; n = 44), 2) patients with cyanotic congenital heart defect and moderate hypoxemia (SpO2 86-94%; n = 16), and 3) patients with cyanotic congenital heart defect and profound systemic hypoxemia (SpO2 ≤ 85%; n = 39). MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Nasal transepithelial potential difference served as a surrogate measure for epithelial Na transport of the respiratory tract. Profoundly hypoxemic patients had 29% lower basal nasal transepithelial potential difference (p = 0.02) and 55% lower amiloride-sensitive nasal transepithelial potential difference (p = 0.0003) than normoxemic patients. In profoundly hypoxemic patients, nasal epithelial messenger RNA expressions of two airway Na transporters (amiloride-sensitive epithelial Na channel and ß1- Na-K-ATPase) were not attenuated, but instead α1-Na-K-ATPase messenger RNA levels were higher (p = 0.03) than in the normoxemic patients, indicating that posttranscriptional factors may impair airway Na transport. The chest radiograph lung edema score increased after congenital cardiac surgery in profoundly hypoxemic patients (p = 0.0004) but not in patients with normoxemia or moderate hypoxemia. CONCLUSIONS: The impaired airway epithelial amiloride-sensitive Na transport activity in profoundly hypoxemic children with cyanotic congenital heart defect may hinder defense against lung edema after cardiac surgery.

The Effect of Methylprednisolone on Plasma Concentrations of Neutrophil Gelatinase-Associated Lipocalin in Pediatric Heart Surgery.

OBJECTIVES: Plasma neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin is a kidney injury marker used in pediatric heart surgery. Neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin is also a constituent of specific granules of neutrophils. Corticosteroids are widely used in pediatric heart surgery. Methylprednisolone inhibits degranulation of neutrophil-specific granules. Use of corticosteroids has not been taken into account in studies of neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin in pediatric heart surgery. We studied the influence of systemically administered methylprednisolone on plasma neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin concentrations in pediatric heart surgery. DESIGN: Two separate double-blinded randomized trials. SETTING: PICU at a university-affiliated hospital. PATIENTS: Forty neonates undergoing open-heart surgery and 45 children undergoing ventricular and atrioventricular septal defect correction. INTERVENTIONS: First trial (neonate trial), 40 neonates undergoing open-heart surgery received either 30 mg/kg IV methylprednisolone (n = 20) or placebo (n = 20). Second trial (ventricular septal defect trial), 45 children undergoing ventricular or atrioventricular septal defect correction received one of the following: 30 mg/kg of methylprednisolone IV after anesthesia induction (n = 15), 30 mg/kg methylprednisolone in the cardiopulmonary bypass prime solution (n = 15), or placebo (n = 15). MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Plasma neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin and creatinine were measured in both series. Lactoferrin levels were measured as a marker of neutrophil-specific granules in the ventricular septal defect trial only. No differences in creatinine levels occurred between the groups of either trial. Preoperative, neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin did not differ between the study groups of either trial. Preoperatively administered methylprednisolone in the neonate trial reduced neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin by 41% at 6 hours postoperatively (p = 0.002). Preoperatively administered methylprednisolone in the ventricular septal defect trial reduced neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin by 47% (p = 0.010) and lactoferrin by 52% (p = 0.013) 6 hours postoperatively. Lactoferrin levels in the ventricular septal defect trial correlated with neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (R = 0.492; p = 0.001) preoperatively and after weaning from cardiopulmonary bypass (R = 0.471; p = 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Preoperatively administered methylprednisolone profoundly decreases plasma neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin levels. Neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin seems to originate to a significant extent from activated neutrophils. Preoperative methylprednisolone is a confounding factor when interpreting plasma neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin levels as a kidney injury marker in pediatric heart surgery.

Pediatric Intensive Care in PICUs and Adult ICUs: A 2-Year Cohort Study in Finland.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate the association between the type of ICU and mortality for children treated at PICUs and adult ICUs. DESIGN: This was a national multicenter cohort study. Data were collected from electronic critical care data management systems at 3 units and from national intensive care registries at 26 units. SETTING: We assessed the incidence of admissions, length of stay at ICUs, main diagnoses, and mortality for children at ICUs. Units were categorized as PICUs or as adult ICUs located at university hospitals or at non-academic central hospitals. PATIENTS: Children younger than 17 years of age treated at ICUs in Finland. INTERVENTIONS: Not applicable. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: There were 4,876 admissions from 2009 to 2010, and 98.9% of patients survived until unit discharge. The mean length of stay was 3.0 ± 7.4 days; 1,395 patients (35%) required mechanical ventilation at PICUs versus 167 (35%) at adult university hospital ICUs versus 79 (19%) at central hospital ICUs (p < 0.001). The odds for mortality in univariate regression analysis were emergency admission (odds ratio, 3.99; 95% CI, 1.82-8.76), cardiovascular (odds ratio, 7.84; 95% CI, 3.49-22.88), gastrointestinal (odds ratio, 5.37; 95% CI, 1.45-19.88), acute infections (odds ratio, 2.83; 95% CI, 1.23-6.48), hematologic/oncologic disease (odds ratio, 10.32; 95% CI, 3.14-33.86), and nonsurgical trauma (odds ratio, 3.53; 95% CI, 1.19-10.41). Treatment at adult ICUs had higher odds of mortality compared with PICUs (university hospital: odds ratio, 3.93; 95% CI, 1.85-8.35 and central hospital: odds ratio, 3.91; 95% CI, 1.69-9.05), adjusted for readmission less than 48 hours after discharge, emergency admission, mechanical ventilation, and diagnostic group. CONCLUSIONS: Pediatric patients treated at PICUs showed lower mortality. Requirement of mechanical ventilation, emergency admission, and readmission less than 48 hours after discharge and cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, acute infections, hematologic/oncologic disease, and nonsurgical trauma were associated with higher risk of mortality.