ABSTRACT
Adolescent idiopathic scoliosis is present in 2 to 4 percent of children between 10 and 16 years of age. It is defined as a lateral curvature of the spine greater than 10 degrees accompanied by vertebral rotation. It is thought to be a multigene dominant condition with variable phenotypic expression. Scoliosis can be identified by the Adam's forward bend test during physical examination. Severe pain, a left thoracic curve or an abnormal neurologic examination are red flags that point to a secondary cause for spinal deformity. Specialty consultation and magnetic resonance imaging are needed if red flags are present. Of adolescents diagnosed with scoliosis, only 10 percent have curves that progress and require medical intervention. The main risk factors for curve progression are a large curve magnitude, skeletal immaturity and female gender. The likelihood of curve progression can be estimated by measuring the curve magnitude using the Cobb method on radiographs and by assessing skeletal growth potential using Tanner staging and Risser grading.
Subject(s)
Mass Screening , Scoliosis/diagnosis , Adolescent , Diagnosis, Differential , Humans , Mass Screening/methods , Practice Guidelines as Topic , Prevalence , Prognosis , Referral and Consultation , Scoliosis/classification , Scoliosis/epidemiology , Scoliosis/physiopathology , Scoliosis/therapy , Severity of Illness Index , United StatesABSTRACT
BACKGROUND: A literature review was conducted to analyze developments in the epidemiology, pathogenesis, treatment, and prevention of frostbite injury. Increased participation in outdoor activities, as well as the epidemic of homelessness, makes knowledge of the treatment of frostbite crucial for physicians in both rural and urban areas. METHODS: A literature search, using the key words "frostbite" and "cold," was done using MEDLINE and Index Medicus. This search focused on the epidemiology, pathogenesis, treatment, and prevention of frostbite. RESULTS: Research done during the past 15 years has clarified the pathogenesis of frostbite injury and led to a better understanding of how to limit tissue loss. The etiology of frostbite is commonly related to alcohol use, psychiatric illness, or motor vehicle problems. The pathogenesis is linked to tissue freezing, hypoxia, and the release of inflammatory mediators. The initial clinical manifestations of frostbite injury are similar for superficial and deep tissue damage, so early treatment is identical for all injuries. Optimum therapy is based on the rapid reversal of tissue freezing by rewarming in 104-108 degrees F water and the institution of oral and topical antiprostaglandin therapy to limit the release of inflammatory mediators. CONCLUSION: Rapid triage and treatment of frostbite can lead to dramatic improvements in outcome and prognosis. Increased awareness of antiprostaglandin therapy and preventive measures is crucial for physicians in diverse practice environments.
