Identifying and Training Skill Acquisition Protocol Development: A Preliminary Investigation.

According to the Behavior Analyst Certification Board (BACB), services commonly provided by behavior analysts include writing and revising protocols for teaching new skills. To our knowledge, there are currently no published, peer-reviewed articles or texts focused on developing skill acquisition protocols. The purpose of this study was to develop and evaluate the effectiveness of a computer-based instruction (CBI) tutorial on acquisition of skills related to writing an individualized protocol based on a research article. The tutorial was developed based on a variety of expert samples recruited by the experimenters. Fourteen students enrolled in a university behavior analysis program participated in a matched-subjects group experimental design. The training was separated into three modules on protocol components, identifying important information in a research article, and individualizing the protocol for a learner. Training was self-paced and completed in the absence of a trainer. The training included the following behavioral skills training components: instruction, modeling, individualized pacing, opportunities to actively respond and rehearse skills, and frequent specific feedback. The tutorial resulted in a significant increase in accuracy of protocols during posttest when compared to a textual training manual. This study contributes to the literature by applying CBI training procedures to a complex skill, as well as evaluating training in the absence of a trainer, and provides a technology for clinicians to learn effectively and efficiently to write a technological, individualized, and empirically based protocol.

Maintaining On-Task Behavior of Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder in the Absence of an Instructor.

Despite the vast amount of research on increasing independence for individuals with autism spectrum disorder, there is a lack of research on techniques for fostering independent on-task behavior and accuracy in the absence of an instructor. Though increasing distance of the instructor and altering reinforcer delivery have been shown in a few studies to produce independence in the absence of an instructor, no study to date has compared the effects of systematic fading and complete removal of an instructor. In the current study, we evaluated the effects of three conditions on the on-task behavior and accuracy of adolescents with autism spectrum disorder: instructor present (instructor with participant and conditioned reinforcers delivered within session ), instructor absent (instructor not with the participant and no within-session conditioned reinforcers), and instructor fading (gradual, systematic fading of instructor and thinning of within-session conditioned reinforcers). Across all three participants, the intervention was effective in maintaining criterion levels of on-task behavior and accuracy. Responding generalized to novel instructors and remained high during maintenance evaluations for all participants. Clinicians rated the procedures as having high social validity.

Using Video Prompting to Teach Leg Shaving to Women with Disabilities.

This was the first study to evaluate procedures for teaching leg shaving to individuals with disabilities. Using a video prompting teaching package in a concurrent multiple baseline design across participants with different diagnoses (i.e., paraplegia, Down Syndrome, and intellectual disability), all participants learned to shave their legs and maintained responding two weeks post-intervention.

A Preliminary Evaluation of the Effects of a Contingency Management + Deposit Contract Intervention on Problematic Smartphone Use With College Students.

Problematic smartphone use (PSU) is smartphone usage that is, in some way, damaging to the user. PSU represents a growing public health concern that could be addressed via behavioral intervention. We recruited six college students who reported negative side effects of smartphone use and sought to decrease their PSU. The effects of a contingency management (CM) + deposit contract intervention on PSU was evaluated. During the CM + deposit contract condition, participants deposited $40 and had the opportunity to earn back their entire deposit by meeting daily smartphone usage goals. To promote adherence to study protocols, participants also had the opportunity to earn a $20 cooperation bonus. For all participants, lower levels of PSU were observed during intervention relative to baseline. The CM + deposit contract intervention produced consistent decreases in PSU for four participants (mean reduction percentages above 40% were obtained) and had inconsistent effects on PSU for two participants (mean reduction percentages below 20%). Maintenance of intervention effects was limited for all participants. Although preliminary, results suggest that CM + deposit contract interventions could be a viable, low-cost approach to addressing PSU. Potential explanations for our findings and avenues for future research are discussed.

A comparison of development-matched and age-matched targets on play skills of children with autism spectrum disorder.

Although neurotypical children often spend the majority of their time engaged in play activities, children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) can present with substantial delays in the development of play skills, requiring intensive intervention. Although targets for language and basic learning skills are often selected based on the development of neurotypical children (e.g., Sundberg, 2008), little research has been conducted on methods for selecting play skill targets. The current study compared acquisition of play skills that were development-matched (DM) and age-matched (AM) with 4 children diagnosed with ASD. Targets were selected based on the results of the Developmental Play Assessment (DPA; Lifter, 2008). No contrived prompts or consequences were used to teach play skills in either condition. Generalization was programmed for by teaching with 3 sets of toys in both conditions. All participants demonstrated acquisition of DM play targets and generalization to novel toys; none of the participants acquired AM play targets.

Teaching Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder to Mand "Why?"

For most children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), manding for information is an important skill that must be systematically taught. Although previous studies have evaluated interventions for teaching other mands for information, to date no studies have demonstrated effective procedures for teaching the mand "why?" The purpose of the present study was to teach 3 children with ASD to mand "why?" under relevant establishing operation conditions in 3 distinct scenarios. A trial-unique multiple-exemplar procedure was used to promote generalization and increase the value of information provided across trials. All 3 participants learned to mand "why?" in all 3 scenarios within a mean of 18 sessions (range 14-21 sessions), demonstrated generalization to novel stimuli and settings, and maintained this skill over time. Social validity for the intervention had an overall mean of 5.88 (range 1-7).

The influence of observations and ratings on implementation of discrete trial instruction.

Children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder are often taught using discrete trial instruction. Because of low trainer-to-staff ratios commonly found in human service settings, research is needed to find an efficient method to train staff to implement discrete trial instruction with little to no in-vivo training by a qualified trainer. One such technique is observing and rating the behavior of another individual. The resulting improvement in the observer's own behavior is referred to as the observer effect. The purpose of the present study was to assess the effects of conducting behavioral observations and ratings on staff implementation of discrete trial instruction. Staff trainees viewed videos of the implementation of each step, rated the accuracy of implementation, and conducted the procedure with a confederate consumer. The procedure was effective, and the effects extended to novel skills.

Effects of video modeling on abduction-prevention skills by individuals with autism spectrum disorder.

Deficits in safety skills and communication place individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) at risk of danger. Abduction prevention remains an understudied area. Video modeling has proven to be effective in some research on teaching safety skills to individuals with ASD. Existing research has yet to assess responding to lures from known people. The effects of video modeling on abduction-prevention skills were evaluated using a multiple probe across participants with an embedded adapted alternating treatments design. Using video modeling, we extended research by teaching how to respond to lures from strangers and known individuals by securing a code word. Generalization was programmed for and assessed across multiple lure types, confederates, and locations. Participants demonstrated differentiated responding across lures from strangers and known people and responding generalized to untrained community settings, people, and lures. Three of the 4 participants maintained skills at least 1 week following mastery. Procedures, goals, and outcomes were considered socially valid.

Trichotorquatus gen. nov. - a new genus of soil cyanobacteria discovered from American drylands1.

Cyanobacteria are crucial ecosystem components in dryland soils. Advances in describing α-level taxonomy are needed to understand what drives their abundance and distribution. We describe Trichotorquatus gen. nov. (Oculatellaceae, Synechococcales, Cyanobacteria) based on four new species isolated from dryland soils including the coastal sage scrub near San Diego, California (USA), the Mojave and Colorado Deserts with sites at Joshua Tree National Park and Mojave National Preserve, California (USA), and the Atacama Desert (Chile). The genus is morphologically characterized by having thin trichomes (<4.5 µm wide), cells both shorter and longer than wide, rarely occurring single and double false branching, necridia appearing singly or in rows, and sheaths with a distinctive collar-like fraying and widening mid-filament, the feature for which the genus is named. The genus is morphologically nearly identical with Leptolyngbya sensu stricto but is phylogenetically quite distant from that genus. It is consequently a cryptic genus that will likely be differentiated in future studies based on 16S rRNA sequence data. The type species, T. maritimus sp. nov. is morphologically distinct from the other three species, T. coquimbo sp. nov., T. andrei sp. nov. and T. ladouxae sp. nov. However, these latter three species are morphologically very close and are considered by the authors to be cryptic species. All species are separated phylogenetically based on sequence of the 16S-23S ITS region. Three distinct ribosomal operons were recovered from the genus, lending difficulty to recognizing further diversity in this morphologically cryptic genus.

Effects of preliminary class membership on subsequent stimulus equivalence class formation.

The present study examined the effects of including stimuli previously trained as members of functional classes or equivalence classes on subsequent equivalence class formation, and isolated the effects of preliminary training from those of the acquired function stimuli. Fifty-six adults were assigned to 1 of 5 conditions. The control group (CONT) received no preliminary training prior to the terminal phase. Participants in the other 4 groups learned two 3-member functional classes and two 3-member equivalence classes during the preliminary phase. The terminal equivalence phase trained two 5-member classes (A → B → C → D → E) comprising abstract forms; the C stimuli in the terminal phase were (a) from the preliminary functional classes for 1 group (ACQ-F), (b) from the preliminary equivalence classes for the second experimental group (ACQ-E), (c) pictures of everyday objects for the picture control group (PIC), and (d) novel, unfamiliar stimuli for the preliminary training control group (PRE-CONT). Class formation yields were 100% in the PIC condition and 11% in the CONT condition; however, low yields in the PRE-CONT, ACQ-F, and ACQ-E conditions were unexpected, suggesting that procedural variables in preliminary training account for more of the subsequent effects on class formation than the stimulus control properties of the acquired function stimuli.

Evaluation of Manualized Instruction to Train Staff to Implement a Token Economy.

All components of behavioral skills training may not be necessary to effectively train staff to implement behavior-analytic technologies with children with disabilities. This study evaluated manualized instruction to train inexperienced staff to implement a token economy with a confederate and collect data on learner responding. A nonconcurrent multiple-baseline design across staff trainees was used to evaluate the effectiveness of manualized instruction to increase the staff trainees' accurate implementation of a token economy. Additionally, a modified general case analysis was conducted to identify potential child behaviors. Multiple-exemplar training of these behaviors was presented in random order during sessions. Following the use of the manualized instruction, staff trainees' accurate implementation of a token economy and data collection on confederate responding increased, the skills generalized from a confederate to a child with autism spectrum disorder, and the skills maintained 1 month following training.

Back to sleep: Teaching adults to arrange safe infant sleep environments.

There are over 3,000 sleep related infant deaths each year in the United States. Attempts to teach medical personnel and parents safe infant sleep practices in the infant sleep training literature have demonstrated mixed results. Thus, strategies to teach arrangements of safe infant sleep environments warrant further investigation. Behavioral skills training (BST) is an evidence-based teaching strategy shown to successfully teach various safety skills to children and adults. The current study evaluated the effectiveness of behavioral skills training to teach safe infant sleep practices to typically developing adults. Specifically, differential responding was assessed across multiple environmental arrangements typical of contexts parents may be exposed to when putting an infant to sleep. BST significantly improved appropriate arrangement of a safe sleep environment for infants for all 8 participants.

Using video modeling to teach play comments to dyads with ASD.

Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often display deficits in social and conversational skills. One method used to improve social deficits includes video modeling. When targeting conversational skills, few studies have included individuals with ASD as conversational partners. We evaluated the effects of video modeling on commenting (i.e., scripted statements) during leisure activities with dyads of children with ASD using a multiple-probe-across-activities design. Video modeling alone was found to be effective in increasing scripted statements for 3 of 6 participants. Video modeling, tangible reinforcement, and additional prompts were necessary for the remaining participants. Results maintained 1 and 3 weeks after mastery. Procedures, goals and outcomes were reported as socially valid. Limitations and areas of future research are discussed.

Establishing a Generalized Repertoire of Initiating Bids for Joint Attention in Children with Autism.

The current study evaluated whether multiple-exemplar training, auditory scripts, and script-fading procedures could establish a generalized repertoire of initiating bids for joint attention in four young children with autism. Stimuli drawn from each of three experimenter-defined categories were used during teaching to program for generalization of initiations of bids for joint attention from trained stimuli to novel stimuli. A fourth category was reserved for assessment of across-category generalization of bids for joint attention. The four categories were (a) visually enticing toys, (b) unusually placed items, (c) environmental sounds, and (d) pictures. Assignment of categories for teaching and assessment of generalization was counterbalanced across the participants. Three different auditory scripts were used during intervention for each of the training stimuli to program for response generalization. All four children learned to initiate bids for joint attention. After scripts were subsequently faded and reinforcement was thinned, bids for joint attention were maintained and also generalized to novel stimuli and settings.

Evaluation of Computer-Based Training to Teach Adults Visual Analysis Skills of Baseline-Treatment Graphs.

The primary method of data analysis in applied behavior analysis is visual analysis. However, few investigations to date have taught the skills necessary for accurate visual analysis. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate computer-based training on the visual analysis skills of adults with no prior experience. Visual analysis was taught with interactive computer-based training that included written instructions and opportunities for practice with textual feedback. Generalization of participant skills from simulated to handwritten and authentic data graphs was programmed for and assessed during the study. A multiple-baseline design was used across visual analysis properties (i.e., variability, level, and trend), with continuous overall intervention effect generalization probes, replicated across 4 participants to evaluate computer-based training for accurate visual analysis of A-B graphs. The results showed that all participants accurately visually analyzed A-B graphs following the computer-based training for variability, level, trend, and overall intervention effect. These visual analysis skills generalized to handwritten and authentic data graphs and maintained approximately 1 day, 1 week, 2 weeks, and 1 month following mastery of each property for all participants. Implications of the results suggest that computer-based training improved accurate visual analysis skills for adults with no prior experience.

The Effects of a Video-Enhanced Schedule on Exercise Behavior.

Research focusing on physical exercise and individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is limited. Activity- and video-enhanced schedules have successfully increased leisure, academic, social, and daily living skills for individuals with ASD and may be effective in increasing exercise. We evaluated the effects of a video-enhanced schedule presented on an iPad® on exercise behavior with adolescents with ASD using a multiple probe across participants design. Specifically, the effects of a video-enhanced exercise schedule with graduated guidance on independent schedule-following behavior and on-task behavior was evaluated. Participants acquired a video-enhanced exercise schedule and remained on task; we also successfully faded proximity from the participant. The skills generalized to a novel exercise and setting and maintained over time. The procedures were reported to be socially acceptable by stakeholders. Individuals with ASD are more likely to live sedentary lifestyles, have poor diets and sleep, and be overweight. We evaluated the effects of a video-enhanced exercise schedule presented on an iPad® with individuals with ASD on independent schedule following behavior and on-task behavior. We also attempted to fade proximity from an instructor and assessed generalization, maintenance, and social validity. Individuals quickly acquired the exercise schedule and remained on task. Distance from an instructor was increased, skills generalized to novel exercises and locations and maintained over time, and the procedures and outcomes were reported favorable by stakeholders. Practitioners should continue to evaluate the effects of video-enhanced schedules on exercise behavior and determine how to fade the videos.

Teaching children with autism spectrum disorder to tact olfactory stimuli.

Research on tact acquisition by children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has often focused on teaching participants to tact visual stimuli. It is important to evaluate procedures for teaching tacts of nonvisual stimuli (e.g., olfactory, tactile). The purpose of the current study was to extend the literature on secondary target instruction and tact training by evaluating the effects of a discrete-trial instruction procedure involving (a) echoic prompts, a constant prompt delay, and error correction for primary targets; (b) inclusion of secondary target stimuli in the consequent portion of learning trials; and (c) multiple exemplar training on the acquisition of item tacts of olfactory stimuli, emergence of category tacts of olfactory stimuli, generalization of category tacts, and emergence of category matching, with three children diagnosed with ASD. Results showed that all participants learned the item and category tacts following teaching, participants demonstrated generalization across category tacts, and category matching emerged for all participants.

Teaching help-seeking when lost to individuals with autism spectrum disorder.

Deficits in safety skills and communication deficits place individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) at an increased risk of danger. We used a multiple-probe across-participants design to evaluate the effects of video modeling and programming common stimuli to teach low- and high-tech help-seeking responses to children with ASD when lost. Participants acquired answering or making a FaceTime® call and exchanging an identification card in contrived and natural settings. Responses generalized to novel community settings and maintained during a one- and two-week follow-up. Social validity measures showed that the procedures and outcomes of the study were acceptable to indirect and direct consumers, and immediate and extended community members. Implications are that children with ASD can effectively be taught both low- and high-tech help-seeking responses when lost.

Analysis of precursors to multiply controlled problem behavior: A replication.

We replicated Fritz, Iwata, Hammond, and Bloom (2013) by evaluating the efficacy of an experimental methodology to identify precursors to aggression displayed by an adolescent with autism spectrum disorder. Using their trial-based precursor analysis, we identified seven precursors to aggression. Next, we compared the outcomes of separate precursor and aggression functional analyses and showed that both precursors and aggression were multiply controlled by the same variables.

Caldwell University's Department of Applied Behavior Analysis.

Since 2004, faculty members at Caldwell University have developed three successful graduate programs in Applied Behavior Analysis (i.e., PhD, MA, non-degree programs), increased program faculty from two to six members, developed and operated an on-campus autism center, and begun a stand-alone Applied Behavior Analysis Department. This paper outlines a number of strategies used to advance these initiatives, including those associated with an extensive public relations campaign. We also outline challenges that have limited our programs' growth. These strategies, along with a consideration of potential challenges, might prove useful in guiding academicians who are interested in starting their own programs in behavior analysis.