ABSTRACT
The O/ME-SA/Ind-2001d has been the main foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) lineage responsible for FMD epidemics outside the Indian subcontinent from 2013 to 2017. In 2014, outbreaks caused by this FMDV lineage were reported in Maghreb, where it was initially detected in Algeria and Tunisia and later in Morocco. This was the first incursion of an FMDV type O of exotic origin in the Maghreb region after 14 years of absence. In this study, we report analyses of both VP1 and whole-genome sequences (WGSs) generated from 22 isolates collected in Algeria and Tunisia between 2014 and 2015. All the WGSs analysed showed a minimum pairwise identity of 98.9% at the nucleotide level and 99% at the amino acid level (FMDV coding region). All Tunisian sequences shared a single putative common ancestor closely related to FMDV strains circulating in Libya during 2013. Whereas sequences from Algeria suggest the country experienced two virus introductions. The first introduction is represented by strains circulating in 2014 which are closely related to those from Tunisia, the second one, of which the origin is more uncertain, includes strains collected in Algeria in 2015 that gave origin to the 2015 outbreak reported in Morocco. Overall, our results demonstrated that a unique introduction of O/Ind-2001d FMDV occurred in Maghreb through Tunisia presumably in 2014, and from then the virus spread into Algeria and later into Morocco.
Subject(s)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus , Foot-and-Mouth Disease , Amino Acids , Animals , Disease Outbreaks/veterinary , Foot-and-Mouth Disease/epidemiology , Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus/genetics , Nucleotides , Phylogeny , Serogroup , Tunisia/epidemiologyABSTRACT
An essential step towards the global control and eradication of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is the identification of circulating virus strains in endemic regions to implement adequate outbreak control measures. However, due to the high biological risk and the requirement for biological samples to be shipped frozen, the cost of shipping samples becomes one of major obstacles hindering submission of suspected samples to reference laboratories for virus identification. In this study, we report the development of a cost-effective and safe method for shipment of FMD samples. The protocol is based on the inactivation of FMD virus (FMDV) on lateral flow device (LFD, penside test routinely used in the field for rapid immunodetection of FMDV), allowing its subsequent detection and typing by RT-PCR and recovery of live virus upon RNA transfection into permissive cells. After live FMDV collection onto LFD strip and soaking in 0.2% citric acid solution, the virus is totally inactivated. Viral RNA is still detectable by real-time RT-PCR following inactivation, and the virus strain can be characterized by sequencing of the VP1 coding region. In addition, live virus can be rescued by transfecting RNA extract from treated LFD into cells. This protocol should help promoting submission of FMD suspected samples to reference laboratories (by reducing the cost of sample shipping) and thus characterization of FMDV strains circulating in endemic regions.
Subject(s)
Cost-Benefit Analysis , Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus/isolation & purification , Foot-and-Mouth Disease/diagnosis , Foot-and-Mouth Disease/virology , Specimen Handling/economics , Animals , Cattle , Clinical Laboratory Techniques , Clinical Protocols , Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus/genetics , RNA, Viral/genetics , Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction/methods , Safety Management , Sensitivity and Specificity , Specimen Handling/methods , Swine , Transfection , Virus InactivationABSTRACT
Two duplex one-step TaqMan-based RT-PCR protocols for detection of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) were established and validated. Each RT-PCR test consists of a ready-to-use master mix for simultaneous detection of the well established 3D or IRES FMDV targets and incorporates the host ß-actin mRNA as an internal control target, in a single-tube assay. The two real-time RT-PCR 3D/ß-actin and IRES/ß-actin tests are highly sensitive and able to detect up to 7TCID50/ml of FMDV and 10 copies/1µl of viral RNA. In field epithelium samples, the diagnostic sensitivity was 100% (95% CI; 91-100%) for the 3D/ß-actin test and 97% (95% CI; 87-100%) for the IRES/ß-actin test. The diagnostic specificity was 100% (95% CI; 95-100%) for both RT-PCRs. In addition, the two protocols proved to be robust, showing inter-assay coefficients of variation ranging from 1.94% to 6.73% for the IRES target and from 2.33% to 5.42% for the 3D target for different RNA extractions and different RT-PCR conditions. The internally controlled one-step real-time RT-PCR protocols described in this study provide a rapid, effective and reliable method for the detection of FMDV and thus may improve the routine diagnosis for foot-and-mouth disease.
Subject(s)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus/isolation & purification , Foot-and-Mouth Disease/diagnosis , Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction/methods , Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction/methods , Actins/genetics , Animals , Cattle , Cattle Diseases/diagnosis , Cattle Diseases/virology , Foot-and-Mouth Disease/virology , Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus/genetics , Goat Diseases/diagnosis , Goat Diseases/virology , Goats , RNA, Viral/genetics , Sensitivity and Specificity , Sheep , Sheep Diseases/diagnosis , Sheep Diseases/virology , Tongue/cytology , Tongue/virologyABSTRACT
The encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV), a Picornaviridae virus, has a wide host spectrum and can cause various diseases. EMCV virulence factors, however, are as yet ill defined. Here, we demonstrate that the EMCV 2A protein is essential for the pathogenesis of EMCV. Infection of mice with the B279/95 strain of EMCV resulted in acute fatal disease, while the clone C9, derived by serial in vitro passage of the B279/95 strain, was avirulent. C9 harbored a large deletion in the gene encoding the 2A protein. This deletion was incorporated into the cDNA of a pathogenic EMCV1.26 strain. The new virus, EMCV1.26Δ2A, was capable of replicating in vitro, albeit more slowly than EMCV1.26. Only mice inoculated with EMCV1.26 triggered death within a few days. Mice infected with EMCV1.26Δ2A did not exhibit clinical signs, and histopathological analyses showed no damage in the central nervous system, unlike EMCV1.26-infected mice. In vitro, EMCV1.26Δ2A presented a defect in viral particle release correlating with prolonged cell viability. Unlike EMCV1.26, which induced cytopathic cell death, EMCV1.26Δ2A induced apoptosis via caspase 3 activation. This strongly suggests that the 2A protein is required for inhibition of apoptosis during EMCV infection. All together, our data indicate that the EMCV 2A protein is important for the virus in counteracting host defenses, since Δ2A viruses were no longer pathogenic and were unable to inhibit apoptosis in vitro.
