IL-10 and Cdc42 modulate astrocyte-mediated microglia activation in methamphetamine-induced neuroinflammation.

Methamphetamine (Meth) use is known to induce complex neuroinflammatory responses, particularly involving astrocytes and microglia. Building upon our previous research, which demonstrated that Meth stimulates astrocytes to release tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and glutamate, leading to microglial activation, this study investigates the role of the anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-10 (IL-10) in this process. Our findings reveal that the presence of recombinant IL-10 (rIL-10) counteracts Meth-induced excessive glutamate release in astrocyte cultures, which significantly reduces microglial activation. This reduction is associated with the modulation of astrocytic intracellular calcium (Ca2+) dynamics, particularly by restricting the release of Ca2+ from the endoplasmic reticulum to the cytoplasm. Furthermore, we identify the small Rho GTPase Cdc42 as a crucial intermediary in the astrocyte-to-microglia communication pathway under Meth exposure. By employing a transgenic mouse model that overexpresses IL-10 (pMT-10), we also demonstrate in vivo that IL-10 prevents Meth-induced neuroinflammation. These findings not only enhance our understanding of Meth-related neuroinflammatory mechanisms, but also suggest IL-10 and Cdc42 as putative therapeutic targets for treating Meth-induced neuroinflammation.

An Overview on Mushroom Polysaccharides: Health-promoting Properties, Prebiotic and Gut Microbiota Modulation Effects and Structure-function Correlation.

Mushroom polysaccharides are recognized as "biological response modifiers". Besides several bioactivities, a growing interest in their prebiotic potential has been raised due to the gut microbiota modulation potential. This review comprehensively summarizes mushroom polysaccharides' biological properties, structure-function relationship, and underlying mechanisms. It provides a recent overview of the key findings in the field (2018-2024). Key findings and limitations on structure-function correlation are discussed. Although most studies focus on ß-glucans or extracts, α-glucans and chitin have gained interest. Prebiotic capacity has been associated with α-glucans and chitin, while antimicrobial and wound healing potential is attributed to chitin. However, further research is of utmost importance. Human fecal fermentation is the most reported approach to assess prebiotic potential, indicating impacts on intestinal biological, mechanical, chemical and immunological barriers. Gut microbiota dysbiosis has been directly connected with intestinal, cardiovascular, metabolic, and neurological diseases. Concerning gut microbiota modulation, animal experiments have suggested proinflammatory cytokines reduction and redox balance re-establishment. Most literature focused on the anticancer and immunomodulatory potential. However, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiviral, antidiabetic, hypocholesterolemic, antilipidemic, antioxidant, and neuroprotective properties are discussed. A significant overview of the gaps and research directions in synergistic effects, underlying mechanisms, structure-function correlation, clinical trials and scientific data is also given.

Mechanical actuators in microglia dynamics and function.

Microglia are the most prominent immune resident cell population in the central nervous system (CNS). In the healthy CNS, microglia survey their surrounding microenvironment, through recurrent extension and retraction of filopodia-like membrane protrusions, without evident cell body displacement. Microglia undergo dramatic transcriptomic and shape changes upon brain insults or neurodegenerative disease states and adopt a classical immune effector function (producing an extensive array of inflammatory mediators such as cytokines, chemokines, and reactive oxygen species) to re-establish tissue homeostasis. While the biophysical principles underlying microglia morphological changes remain elusive, several recent studies have highlighted the pivotal role of the actin and non-muscle myosin II filamentous cytoskeleton in this process. In this work, we discuss how subcellular topological patterning of the actin and myosin cytoskeleton can control microglial cell shape dynamics and how it can potentially feedback on their functional specialization, which is of great importance to understanding the mechanisms of microglial action in homeostatic conditions and CNS disease states.

Mechanotransduction: Exploring New Therapeutic Avenues in Central Nervous System Pathology.

Cells are continuously exposed to physical forces and the central nervous system (CNS) is no exception. Cells dynamically adapt their behavior and remodel the surrounding environment in response to forces. The importance of mechanotransduction in the CNS is illustrated by exploring its role in CNS pathology development and progression. The crosstalk between the biochemical and biophysical components of the extracellular matrix (ECM) are here described, considering the recent explosion of literature demonstrating the powerful influence of biophysical stimuli like density, rigidity and geometry of the ECM on cell behavior. This review aims at integrating mechanical properties into our understanding of the molecular basis of CNS disease. The mechanisms that mediate mechanotransduction events, like integrin, Rho/ROCK and matrix metalloproteinases signaling pathways are revised. Analysis of CNS pathologies in this context has revealed that a wide range of neurological diseases share as hallmarks alterations of the tissue mechanical properties. Therefore, it is our belief that the understanding of CNS mechanotransduction pathways may lead to the development of improved medical devices and diagnostic methods as well as new therapeutic targets and strategies for CNS repair.

Profiling Microglia in a Mouse Model of Machado-Joseph Disease.

Microglia have been increasingly implicated in neurodegenerative diseases (NDs), and specific disease associated microglia (DAM) profiles have been defined for several of these NDs. Yet, the microglial profile in Machado-Joseph disease (MJD) remains unexplored. Here, we characterized the profile of microglia in the CMVMJD135 mouse model of MJD. This characterization was performed using primary microglial cultures and microglial cells obtained from disease-relevant brain regions of neonatal and adult CMVMJD135 mice, respectively. Machine learning models were implemented to identify potential clusters of microglia based on their morphological features, and an RNA-sequencing analysis was performed to identify molecular perturbations and potential therapeutic targets. Our findings reveal morphological alterations that point to an increased activation state of microglia in CMVMJD135 mice and a disease-specific transcriptional profile of MJD microglia, encompassing a total of 101 differentially expressed genes, with enrichment in molecular pathways related to oxidative stress, immune response, cell proliferation, cell death, and lipid metabolism. Overall, these results allowed us to define the cellular and molecular profile of MJD-associated microglia and to identify genes and pathways that might represent potential therapeutic targets for this disorder.

Neuron-Microglia Contact-Dependent Mechanisms Attenuate Methamphetamine-Induced Microglia Reactivity and Enhance Neuronal Plasticity.

Exposure to methamphetamine (Meth) has been classically associated with damage to neuronal terminals. However, it is now becoming clear that addiction may also result from the interplay between glial cells and neurons. Recently, we demonstrated that binge Meth administration promotes microgliosis and microglia pro-inflammation via astrocytic glutamate release in a TNF/IP3R2-Ca2+-dependent manner. Here, we investigated the contribution of neuronal cells to this process. As the crosstalk between microglia and neurons may occur by contact-dependent and/or contact-independent mechanisms, we developed co-cultures of primary neurons and microglia in microfluidic devices to investigate how their interaction affects Meth-induced microglia activation. Our results show that neurons exposed to Meth do not activate microglia in a cell-autonomous way but require astrocyte mediation. Importantly, we found that neurons can partially prevent Meth-induced microglia activation via astrocytes, which seems to be achieved by increasing arginase 1 expression and strengthening the CD200/CD200r pathway. We also observed an increase in synaptic individual area, as determined by co-localization of pre- and post-synaptic markers. The present study provides evidence that contact-dependent mechanisms between neurons and microglia can attenuate pro-inflammatory events such as Meth-induced microglia activation.

Astrocyte-derived TNF and glutamate critically modulate microglia activation by methamphetamine.

Methamphetamine (Meth) is a powerful illicit psychostimulant, widely used for recreational purposes. Besides disrupting the monoaminergic system and promoting oxidative brain damage, Meth also causes neuroinflammation, contributing to synaptic dysfunction and behavioral deficits. Aberrant activation of microglia, the largest myeloid cell population in the brain, is a common feature in neurological disorders triggered by neuroinflammation. In this study, we investigated the mechanisms underlying the aberrant activation of microglia elicited by Meth in the adult mouse brain. We found that binge Meth exposure caused microgliosis and disrupted risk assessment behavior (a feature that usually occurs in individuals who abuse Meth), both of which required astrocyte-to-microglia crosstalk. Mechanistically, Meth triggered a detrimental increase of glutamate exocytosis from astrocytes (in a process dependent on TNF production and calcium mobilization), promoting microglial expansion and reactivity. Ablating TNF production, or suppressing astrocytic calcium mobilization, prevented Meth-elicited microglia reactivity and re-established risk assessment behavior as tested by elevated plus maze (EPM). Overall, our data indicate that glial crosstalk is critical to relay alterations caused by acute Meth exposure.

Morphofunctional programming of microglia requires distinct roles of type II myosins.

The ramified morphology of microglia and the dynamics of their membrane protrusions are essential for their functions in central nervous system development, homeostasis, and disease. Although their ability to change and control shape critically depends on the actin and actomyosin cytoskeleton, the underlying regulatory mechanisms remain largely unknown. In this study, we systematically analyzed the actomyosin cytoskeleton and regulators downstream of the small GTPase RhoA in the control of microglia shape and function. Our results reveal that (i) Myh9 controls cortical tension levels and affects microglia protrusion formation, (ii) cofilin-mediated maintenance of actin turnover regulates microglia protrusion extension, and (iii) Myh10 influences microglia inflammatory activation. Overall we uncover molecular pathways that regulate microglia morphology and identify type-II myosins as important regulators of microglia biology with differential roles in the control of cell shape (Myh9) and functions (Myh10).

Pushing myelination - developmental regulation of myosin expression drives oligodendrocyte morphological differentiation.

Oligodendrocytes are the central nervous system myelin-forming cells providing axonal electrical insulation and higher-order neuronal circuitry. The mechanical forces driving the differentiation of oligodendrocyte precursor cells into myelinating oligodendrocytes are largely unknown, but likely require the spatiotemporal regulation of the architecture and dynamics of the actin and actomyosin cytoskeletons. In this study, we analyzed the expression pattern of myosin motors during oligodendrocyte development. We report that oligodendrocyte differentiation is regulated by the synchronized expression and non-uniform distribution of several members of the myosin network, particularly non-muscle myosins 2B and 2C, which potentially operate as nanomechanical modulators of cell tension and myelin membrane expansion at different cell stages.This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.

Evolvability of the actin cytoskeleton in oligodendrocytes during central nervous system development and aging.

The organization of actin filaments into a wide range of subcellular structures is a defining feature of cell shape and dynamics, important for tissue development and homeostasis. Nervous system function requires morphological and functional plasticity of neurons and glial cells, which is largely determined by the dynamic reorganization of the actin cytoskeleton in response to intrinsic and extracellular signals. Oligodendrocytes are specialized glia that extend multiple actin-based protrusions to form the multilayered myelin membrane that spirally wraps around axons, increasing conduction speed and promoting long-term axonal integrity. Myelination is a remarkable biological paradigm in development, and maintenance of myelin is essential for a healthy adult nervous system. In this review, we discuss how structure and dynamics of the actin cytoskeleton is a defining feature of myelinating oligodendrocytes' biology and function. We also review "old and new" concepts to reflect on the potential role of the cytoskeleton in balancing life and death of myelin membranes and oligodendrocytes in the aging central nervous system.

Neuronal Rho GTPase Rac1 elimination confers neuroprotection in a mouse model of permanent ischemic stroke.

The Rho GTPase Rac1 is a multifunctional protein involved in distinct pathways ranging from development to pathology. The aim of the present study was to unravel the contribution of neuronal Rac1 in regulating the response to brain injury induced by permanent focal cerebral ischemia (pMCAO). Our results show that pMCAO significantly increased total Rac1 levels in wild type mice, mainly through rising nuclear Rac1, while a reduction in Rac1 activation was observed. Such changes preceded cell death induced by excitotoxic stress. Pharmacological inhibition of Rac1 in primary neuronal cortical cells prevented the increase in oxidative stress induced after overactivation of glutamate receptors. However, this was not sufficient to prevent the associated neuronal cell death. In contrast, RNAi-mediated knock down of Rac1 in primary cortical neurons prevented cell death elicited by glutamate excitotoxicity and decreased the activity of NADPH oxidase. To test whether in vivo down regulation of neuronal Rac1 was neuroprotective after pMCAO, we used tamoxifen-inducible neuron-specific conditional Rac1-knockout mice. We observed a significant 50% decrease in brain infarct volume of knockout mice and a concomitant increase in HIF-1α expression compared to littermate control mice, demonstrating that ablation of Rac1 in neurons is neuroprotective. Transmission electron microscopy performed in the ischemic brain showed that lysosomes in the infarct of Rac1- knockout mice were preserved at similar levels to those of non-infarcted tissue, while littermate mice displayed a decrease in the number of lysosomes, further corroborating the notion that Rac1 ablation in neurons is neuroprotective. Our results demonstrate that Rac1 plays important roles in the ischemic pathological cascade and that modulation of its levels is of therapeutic interest.

Collar occupancy: A new quantitative imaging tool for morphometric analysis of oligodendrocytes.

BACKGROUND: Oligodendrocytes (OL) are the myelinating cells of the central nervous system. OL differentiation from oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPC) is accompanied by characteristic stereotypical morphological changes. Quantitative imaging of those morphological alterations during OPC differentiation is commonly used for characterization of new molecules in cell differentiation and myelination and screening of new pro-myelinating drugs. Current available imaging analysis methods imply a non-automated morphology assessment, which is time-consuming and prone to user subjective evaluation. NEW METHOD: Here, we describe an automated high-throughput quantitative image analysis method entitled collar occupancy that allows morphometric ranking of different stages of in vitro OL differentiation in a high-content analysis format. Collar occupancy is based on the determination of the percentage of area occupied by OPC/OL cytoplasmic protrusions within a defined region that contains the protrusion network, the collar. RESULTS: We observed that more differentiated cells have higher collar occupancy and, therefore, this parameter correlates with the degree of OL differentiation. COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHODS: In comparison with the method of manual categorization, we found the collar occupancy to be more robust and unbiased. Moreover, when coupled with myelin basic protein (MBP) staining to quantify the percentage of myelinating cells, we were able to evaluate the role of new molecules in OL differentiation and myelination, such as Dusp19 and Kank2. CONCLUSIONS: Altogether, we have successfully developed an automated and quantitative method to morphologically characterize OL differentiation in vitro that can be used in multiple studies of OL biology.

Rat cerebellar slice cultures exposed to bilirubin evidence reactive gliosis, excitotoxicity and impaired myelinogenesis that is prevented by AMPA and TNF-α inhibitors.

The cerebellum is one of the most affected brain regions in the course of bilirubin-induced neurological dysfunction. We recently demonstrated that unconjugated bilirubin (UCB) reduces oligodendrocyte progenitor cell (OPC) survival and impairs oligodendrocyte (OL) differentiation and myelination in co-cultures of dorsal root ganglia neurons and OL. Here, we used organotypic cerebellar slice cultures, which replicate many aspects of the in vivo system, to dissect myelination defects by UCB in the presence of neuroimmune-related glial cells. Our results demonstrate that treatment of cerebellar slices with UCB reduces the number of myelinated fibres and myelin basic protein mRNA expression. Interestingly, UCB addition to slices increased the percentage of OPC and decreased mature OL content, whereas it decreased Olig1 and increased Olig2 mRNA expression. These UCB effects were associated with enhanced gliosis, revealed by an increased burden of both microglia and astrocytes. Additionally, UCB treatment led to a marked increase of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and glutamate release, in parallel with a decrease of interleukin (IL)-6. No changes were observed relatively to IL-1ß and S100B secretion. Curiously, both α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptor antagonist and TNF-α antibody partially prevented the myelination defects that followed UCB exposure. These data point to a detrimental role of UCB in OL maturation and myelination together with astrocytosis, microgliosis, and both inflammatory and excitotoxic responses, which collectively may account for myelin deficits following moderate to severe neonatal jaundice.

Identification of new interacting partners for atypical Rho GTPases: a SILAC-based approach.

In contrast to typical Rho GTPases the regulation of atypical Rho GTPases, such as the members of the RhoBTB subfamily, rarely depends on GEFs and/or GAPs. Instead, they are regulated at the level of their expression, by post-translational modifications, by their rate of degradation as well as through binding of diverse cell-specific interactors. Stable Isotope Labeling by Amino acids in Cell culture (SILAC) is a powerful cutting-edge mass-spectrometry-based technology allowing for protein-interaction studies in vitro with removal of false-positive identifications. In this chapter, we describe how the SILAC technology can be applied to the identification of new interacting partners for atypical - constitutively active - Rho GTPases, i.e. RhoBTB3.

BDNF and extracellular matrix regulate differentiation of mice neurosphere-derived cells into a GABAergic neuronal phenotype.

Differentiation of neurosphere-derived cells is regulated by extracellular cues, namely, growth factors and proteins of the extracellular matrix (ECM). In this study we analyzed the influence of nerve growth factor (NGF), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), retinoic acid plus potassium chloride (RA-KCl), and the nonsynthetic ECMs laminin (LN) and fibronectin (FN) versus the synthetic adhesion substrate poly-L-lysine (PLL) in the in vitro differentiation of postnatal neurosphere cells. BDNF increased the number of differentiated neurons and decreased the number of neuronal precursors (nestin-positive cells) compared with NGF or RA-KCl. Moreover, cells treated with BDNF plus B27 supplement acquired a gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-ergic phenotype and showed increased survival. No significant differences were found in the number of differentiated neurons in the presence of the ECMs alone. Nevertheless, FN or PLL in combination with BDNF promoted the acquisition of a GABAergic phenotype. The results obtained in this study highlight the importance of growth factors and ECM proteins for the potential of neurosphere cells to differentiate into neurons.