The elongin complex antagonizes the chromatin factor Corto for vein versus intervein cell identity in Drosophila wings.

Drosophila wings mainly consist of two cell types, vein and intervein cells. Acquisition of either fate depends on specific expression of genes that are controlled by several signaling pathways. The nuclear mechanisms that translate signaling into regulation of gene expression are not completely understood, but they involve chromatin factors from the Trithorax (TrxG) and Enhancers of Trithorax and Polycomb (ETP) families. One of these is the ETP Corto that participates in intervein fate through interaction with the Drosophila EGF Receptor--MAP kinase ERK pathway. Precise mechanisms and molecular targets of Corto in this process are not known. We show here that Corto interacts with the Elongin transcription elongation complex. This complex, that consists of three subunits (Elongin A, B, C), increases RNA polymerase II elongation rate in vitro by suppressing transient pausing. Analysis of phenotypes induced by EloA, B, or C deregulation as well as genetic interactions suggest that the Elongin complex might participate in vein vs intervein specification, and antagonizes corto as well as several TrxG genes in this process. Chromatin immunoprecipitation experiments indicate that Elongin C and Corto bind the vein-promoting gene rhomboid in wing imaginal discs. We propose that Corto and the Elongin complex participate together in vein vs intervein fate, possibly through tissue-specific transcriptional regulation of rhomboid.

APOBEC1 and APOBEC3 cytidine deaminases as restriction factors for hepadnaviral genomes in non-humans in vivo.

Reverse transcription of the hepadnavirus RNA pre-genome means that nascent cDNA may be vulnerable to genetic editing by host cell APOBEC cytidine deaminases that have specificity single-stranded DNA as substrate. Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is particularly vulnerable to editing by APOBEC3G (hA3G) in late-stage disease where up to 35% of genomes can be edited. Yet, the organization of the A3 locus varies considerably among mammals with a single gene for the mouse and seven genes for Old and New World monkeys, which suggests that the outcome may be very variable for other natural hepadnavirus infections. In addition, there is the powerful mouse transgenic model of HBV replication (mHBV) that has proved to be immensely useful in understanding HBV immunopathogenesis. Here, we show that mHBV is edited in vivo by mAPOBEC1 (mA1) and not mAPOBEC3 (mA3), which follows from the fact that unlike humans, the mA1 gene is highly expressed in the liver. For woodchuck hepatitis virus, an mA3 ortholog is probably operative. For HBV-infected tree shrew primary liver cultures, the editing profile more resembles that observed in humans in keeping with fact that this species belongs to the order closest to Primates. There seems to be more genetic editing in liver or cell-associated genomes than serum or culture supernatants, suggesting that too much editing of virion cDNA might impede completion of DNA synthesis.

Murine APOBEC1 is a powerful mutator of retroviral and cellular RNA in vitro and in vivo.

Mammalian APOBEC molecules comprise a large family of cytidine deaminases with specificity for RNA and single-stranded DNA (ssDNA). APOBEC1s are invariably highly specific and edit a single residue in a cellular mRNA, while the cellular targets for APOBEC3s are not clearly established, although they may curtail the transposition of some retrotransposons. Two of the seven member human APOBEC3 enzymes strongly restrict human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in vitro and in vivo. We show here that ssDNA hyperediting of an infectious exogenous gammaretrovirus, the Friend-murine leukemia virus, by murine APOBEC1 and APOBEC3 deaminases occurs in vitro. Murine APOBEC1 was able to hyperdeaminate cytidine residues in murine leukemia virus genomic RNA as well. Analysis of the edited sites shows that the deamination in vivo was due to mouse APOBEC1 rather than APOBEC3. Furthermore, murine APOBEC1 is able to hyperedit its primary substrate in vivo, the apolipoprotein B mRNA, and a variety of heterologous RNAs. In short, murine APOBEC1 is a hypermutator of both RNA and ssDNA in vivo, which could exert occasional side effects upon overexpression.

Inversing the natural hydrogen bonding rule to selectively amplify GC-rich ADAR-edited RNAs.

DNA complementarity is expressed by way of three hydrogen bonds for a G:C base pair and two for A:T. As a result, careful control of the denaturation temperature of PCR allows selective amplification of AT-rich alleles. Yet for the same reason, the converse is not possible, selective amplification of GC-rich alleles. Inosine (I) hydrogen bonds to cytosine by two hydrogen bonds while diaminopurine (D) forms three hydrogen bonds with thymine. By substituting dATP by dDTP and dGTP by dITP in a PCR reaction, DNA is obtained in which the natural hydrogen bonding rule is inversed. When PCR is performed at limiting denaturation temperatures, it is possible to recover GC-rich viral genomes and inverted Alu elements embedded in cellular mRNAs resulting from editing by dsRNA dependent host cell adenosine deaminases. The editing of Alu elements in cellular mRNAs was strongly enhanced by type I interferon induction indicating a novel link mRNA metabolism and innate immunity.