A second iron injection administered to piglets during lactation improves hemoglobin concentration, growth performance, and carcass characteristics at slaughter.

An experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of a second injection of iron dextran administered on days 6 to 8 of age. A total of 144 crossbred pigs (equal barrows and gilts; initial age 6 to 8 d; initial body weight [BW] = 2.86 ± 0.01 kg) were assigned to either the control (CON) or an added-injection treatment (+Fe). Pigs were paired by sex and BW within a litter and randomly assigned to the iron treatment within each pair. All pigs had received an initial intramuscular (IM) injection of iron dextran (200 mg Fe) <24 h after birth. Pigs assigned to the +Fe treatment received a second IM injection of iron dextran (200 mg Fe) on days 6 to 8. All pigs were weaned at 22 to 25 d, housed 6 pigs/pen, and received a common corn-soybean meal diet. BW and feed disappearance were recorded every 2 wk. Hemoglobin (Hb) concentrations were measured at birth, initiation of experiment (days 6 to 8), weaning, and the end of the nursery and end of the study. At the end of the study, 1 pig/pen (n = 12 pigs/treatment), closest to the pen mean was selected and slaughtered for carcass characteristic measures. The individual pig served as the experimental unit for BW, Hb, average daily gain (ADG), and carcass characteristic data whereas the pen served as the experimental unit for average daily feed intake, and gain/feed ratio data. The +Fe pigs had a greater Hb at weaning (13.1 vs. 10.7 g/dL, respectively; P < 0.01) and end of the nursery (12.1 vs. 11.7 g/dL, respectively; P = 0.01) compared to CON pigs. During the finisher period, +Fe pigs had a greater ADG (0.94 vs. 0.91 kg, respectively; P = 0.05) compared to CON pigs. Overall, pigs receiving the second iron injection had an ~4% increase in ADG (P = 0.04) from weaning to the end of study. The cumulative improvement in ADG from weaning to the end of study observed for +Fe group resulted in +Fe pigs having a heavier BW at the end of the study (~3 kg; P = 0.04). Following slaughter, +Fe pigs had ~7.2% heavier trimmed loin (P = 0.04) compared to the CON pigs. In conclusion, administering a second iron injection resulted in greater Hb at weaning and the end of the nursery as well as improved growth performance from weaning to the end of study weight and increased carcass weight at slaughter.

The study aimed to evaluate the effects of a second iron dextran injection administered to piglets before weaning on hemoglobin concentration (Hb), growth performance, and carcass measures. Treatments included: a single iron injection administered within 24 h after birth (CON) and two iron injections (+Fe), one administered within 24 h after birth followed by a second iron injection administered 6 to 8 d after birth. Administering a second iron injection before weaning resulted in increased Hb at weaning and the end of the nursery period. Furthermore, pigs receiving a second iron injection had a greater average daily gain from weaning to final market weight which resulted in a final bodyweight difference of ~3 kg. The increased slaughter weight observed for pigs receiving a second iron injection was associated with an increase in trimmed loin yield. In the current study, providing a second iron injection before weaning was a practical method to improve weaning Hb in early life and resulted in a faster overall growth from weaning to the end of the study.

Effects of multiple vitamin E levels and two fat sources in diets for swine fed to heavy slaughter weight of 150 kg: I. Growth performance, lean growth, organ size, carcass characteristics, primal cuts, and pork quality.

The study objective was to evaluate the effect of two fat source and graded levels of vitamin E (VE) supplementation on growth performance, carcass characteristics, and meat quality of pigs at heavy slaughter weight (150 kg). A total of 48 individually-fed pigs (24 barrows, 24 gilts; 28.44  ±â€…2.69 kg) were blocked by sex and weight and randomly assigned to eight dietary treatments in a 2 × 4 factorial arrangement. Fat treatments were 5% tallow (TW) and distiller's corn-oil (DCO) in the diets. The VE treatments included four levels of α-tocopheryl-acetate (11, 40, 100, and 200 ppm). Growth performance, carcass traits, organ weight, primal cuts, and pork quality were measured. Increasing dietary VE supplementation levels linearly increased overall Average daily gain (ADG) and average daily feed intake (P < 0.05), with an interaction between fat sources and VE supplementation levels on cumulative ADG (P < 0.05) during phases 1 and 3 (28 to 100 kg) and 1 to 4 (28 to125 kg) wherein ADG in the pigs fed the DCO diet, but not the TW diet, increased with increasing dietary VE supplementation level. A similar interaction was observed in 24 h pH and picnic shoulder (P < 0.05). No notable effect of fat source was observed in growth performance. With increasing dietary VE supplementation levels, there were quadratic responses in pork pH at 45 min and 24 h postmortem with the highest value in 40 and 100 ppm of VE levels while TBARS values on day 7 postmortem decreased linearly (P < 0.05). Compared with the TW diet, the DCO diet resulted in greater TBARS values during 7 postmortem (P < 0.05; day 5, P = 0.09). These results demonstrated that increasing dietary VE supplementation level could enhance growth rate and feed intake and reduce lipid peroxidation of pork whereas the diet containing DCO as a fat source could negatively affect pork shelf-life and carcass characteristics and that increasing VE supplementation level had no notable interaction with fat sources for carcass characteristics.

Effects of multiple vitamin E levels and two fat sources in diets for swine fed to heavy slaughter weight of 150 kg: II. Tissue fatty acid profile, vitamin E concentrations, immune capacity, and antioxidant capacity of plasma and tissue.

The study objective was to evaluate the effect of two fat sources and graded levels of vitamin E (VE) supplementation on tissue fatty acid profile, VE concentrations, immune capacity, and antioxidant capacity of plasma and tissues of pigs at heavy slaughter weight (150 kg). A total of 48 individually-fed pigs (24 barrows, 24 gilts; 28.44 ±â€…2.69 kg) were randomly assigned to eight dietary treatments in a 2 × 4 factorial arrangement. The two fat treatments were either 5% tallow (TW) or 5% distiller's corn-oil (DCO). The VE treatments included four levels of α-tocopheryl-acetate (11, 40, 100, and 200 ppm). Compared to pigs fed the DCO diet, pigs fed the TW diet had greater SFA (C14, C16, and C18; P < 0.05) and MUFAs (C14:1, C16:1, C18:1, and C20:1; P < 0.05), lower PUFA (C18:2n-6, C18:3n-3, C20:2, C20:3, and C20:4; P < 0.05) and iodine value in the backfat and belly fat. Increasing dietary VE supplementation level increased α- and total tocopherol concentrations in plasma (linear and quadratic, P < 0.05), liver, and loin muscle (linear, P < 0.06), superoxide dismutase activity (quadratic, P < 0.05), but decreased γ-tocopherol concentrations in liver (linear, P = 0.06), plasma, and loin muscle (quadratic, P < 0.07), and decreased liver glutathione disulfide (GSSG; linear, P = 0.07) and malondialdehyde (MDA) content (quadratic, P < 0.05). There was an interaction between fat sources and dietary VE supplementation level on the concentration of α-tocopherol in the loin muscle (P < 0.05) wherein a greater increase was observed in the TW treatment than the DCO treatment with the increasing dietary VE supplementation level. In conclusion, dietary FA composition in TW and DCO affected the composition of most FA in backfat, belly fat, and liver while increasing VE supplementation level did not significantly alter the FA profile in these tissues. Increasing dietary VE supplementation level increased tocopherol concentrations in plasma, liver and loin muscle, and improved antioxidant capacity while tocopherol concentrations in plasma, liver and loin muscle in the TW treatment increased more than they did in the DCO treatment.

Effects of dietary vitamin E and fat supplementation in growing-finishing swine fed to a heavy slaughter weight of 150 kg: II. Tissue fatty acid profile, vitamin E concentrations, and antioxidant capacity of plasma and tissue.

The study aimed to assess the effects of vitamin E (VE) supplementation and fat source on fatty acid (FA) composition, VE concentrations, and antioxidant capacity in plasma and tissues of pigs fed to a heavy slaughter weight (150 kg). A total of 64 pigs (32 barrows, 32 gilts; 28.41 ±â€…0.83 kg) were blocked by sex and weight, and randomly assigned to one of eight dietary treatments (n = 8 per treatment) in a 4 × 2 factorial arrangement. Fat sources included corn starch (CS), 5% tallow (TW), 5% distiller's corn oil (DCO), and 5% coconut oil (CN); VE supplementation levels were 11 and 200 ppm. Five-phase diets were formulated to meet requirement estimates of NRC (2012) and fed to pigs for each period of 25 kg from 25 to 150 kg. Increasing VE supplementation level increased C16:1 (P < 0.05) content but decreased C20:0 (P < 0.05) content in backfat and belly fat, while in liver, it increased C17:0 (P < 0.05) but decreased C18:0 (P < 0.05). Compared to the pigs fed the CS diet, the pigs fed the CN diet had greater (P < 0.05) content of total saturated FA, the pigs fed the DCO diet had greater (P < 0.05) content of total polyunsaturated FA content and iodine value, and the pigs fed the TW diet had greater (P < 0.05) content of total monounsaturated FA in backfat, belly fat, and liver. Plasma VE concentrations increased linearly (P < 0.05) with increasing length of feeding but faster (P < 0.05) in the pigs fed the CN and TW diets compared with the CS and DCO diets within the 200 ppm VE level; the pigs fed the DCO diet had the highest plasma VE concentrations (P < 0.05) from Phase 2 to Phase 5 within the 11 ppm VE level. The VE concentrations in liver and loin muscle (P < 0.05) increased with increasing dietary VE level from 11 to 200 ppm, but it was not affected by dietary fat source. There was no effect of VE supplementation and fat source on antioxidant capacity in plasma and liver except that pigs fed the DCO diet had greater liver SOD activity (P < 0.05) than the pigs fed the CN diet. In conclusion, dietary VE supplementation did not affect FA profile in backfat, belly fat, and liver consistently, while dietary FA composition with different fat sources affected much of the FA profile in backfat, belly fat, and liver. The higher level of VE supplementation increased liver and muscle VE concentrations and dietary fat sources affected plasma VE concentrations differently (P < 0.05), wherein the TW and CN diets increased the VE absorption greater than the DCO diet.

The study evaluated vitamin E (VE) supplementation and fat source on fatty acid (FA) composition and VE concentrations in pigs. Three fat sources with distinctive fatty acid profiles were used; VE levels were 11 (the requirement estimate) and 200 (a high level to assure any responses could be seen) ppm. Increasing VE affected very few FA in tissues. Compared with the control pigs, pigs fed the coconut oil diet had greater content of saturated FA, pigs fed the distiller's corn oil diet had greater content of polyunsaturated FA content, and pigs fed the tallow diet had greater content of monounsaturated FA in tissues. Plasma VE increased with increasing length of feeding but faster in pigs fed the coconut oil and tallow diets compared with the control and distiller's corn oil diets when the 200 ppm VE level was fed; pigs fed the distiller's corn oil diet had the highest plasma VE concentrations when the 11 ppm VE level was fed. In conclusion, dietary VE did not affect FA profile in backfat, belly fat, and liver consistently, while different dietary fat sources affected much of the FA profile in tissues. The higher level of VE, as expected, increased liver and muscle VE concentrations.

Effects of dietary vitamin E and fat supplementation in growing-finishing swine fed to a heavy slaughter weight of 150 kg: I. Growth performance, lean growth, organ size, carcass characteristics, primal cuts, and pork quality.

The study aimed to assess the effect of vitamin E (VE) supplementation and fat source on growth performance, lean growth, organ size, carcass characteristics, and pork quality of pigs at a heavy slaughter weight of 150 kg. A total of 64 pigs (32 barrows and 32 gilts; 28.41 ± 0.83 kg) were blocked by sex and body weight, and randomly assigned to one of eight dietary treatments (n = 8 per treatment) in a 4 × 2 factorial arrangement with main effects of fat source (corn starch [CS; no fat added], 5% tallow [TW], 5% distiller's corn oil [DCO], and 5% coconut oil [CN]) and VE supplementation level (11 and 200 ppm). Five-phase diets were formulated to meet requirement estimates of NRC and fed to pigs with each period of 25 kg from 25 to 150 kg. Increasing dietary VE supplementation from 11 to 200 ppm tended to increase average daily gain (ADG) in phase 5 (P = 0.08), and gain to feed ratio (G/F) in phase 4 (P = 0.06) and phase 5 (P = 0.06) resulting in increased G/F in the overall period (P = 0.10). Compared with the pigs fed the CS diet in the overall period, the pigs fed DCO diets had greater ADG (P < 0.05), the pigs fed the TW and CN diets had lower average daily feed intake (P < 0.05), and the pigs fed the fat-added diets had greater G/F (P < 0.05). Belly firmness was greatest in the pigs fed the CN diet and lowest in those fed the DCO diet (P < 0.05). Increasing dietary VE level from 11 to 200 ppm increased absolute and relative liver weight, absolute ham yield (P < 0.05), and tended to increase the relative yield of picnic shoulder (P = 0.07) and ham (P = 0.06) and the pigs fed the corn oil diet tended to have greater belly yield (P = 0.08) than the other fat treatments. Increasing dietary VE level increased 45-min pH and ΔpH at slaughter but decreased a* value, chroma (P < 0.10), and belly depth (P < 0.05). However, no effects of VE supplementation and fat source were observed on the other carcass traits and meat quality measurements. In conclusion, increasing dietary VE level from 11 to 200 ppm slightly increased growth rate and feed efficiency in the late finishing periods, and the addition of fat increased feed efficiency and backfat thickness, decreased lean content, and altered belly firmness. While there were some effects of VE supplementation and fat source observed on organ weight, primal cuts, carcass traits, and meat quality, there was no strong evidence that VE supplementation and fat source materially affected these measurements except for belly firmness.

The study aimed to assess the effect of vitamin E (VE) supplementation and fat source on growth performance, carcass characteristics, and pork quality of pigs slaughtered at 150 kg. Fat sources included corn starch (no fat added), or 5% tallow, distiller's corn oil (DCO), or coconut oil (CN); VE supplementation levels were 11 and 200 ppm. Increasing dietary VE from 11 to 200 ppm tended to increase the efficiency of conversion of feed to body weight gain for the overall study period. The pigs fed the DCO diet had greater backfat depth at slaughter. Belly (from which bacon is made) firmness was greatest in the pigs fed the CN diet and lowest in those fed the DCO diet. In conclusion, increasing dietary VE levels from 11 to 200 ppm slightly increased growth rate and feed efficiency, and the addition of fat increased feed efficiency and backfat thickness, decreased lean muscle content, and altered belly firmness. While there were some effects of VE supplementation and fat source, there was no strong evidence that VE supplementation and fat source materially affected these measurements except for belly firmness.

Assessment of visceral organ growth in pigs from birth through 150 kg.

Visceral organs (VO) are essential for their role in the metabolism and distribution of consumed nutrients as well as other life functions in animals. Two experiments were conducted to assess the natural longitudinal changes that the VO undergo from birth through 150 kg body weight (BW). In Experiment 1, a total of 96 crossbred pigs were euthanized at birth (pre-suckle), d 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 14, 21 (weaning), 22, 23, 24, 26, 28, 42, 49, and 63 of age. In Experiment 2, a total of 48 crossbred pigs were euthanized at 30, 50, 75, 100, 125, and 150 kg of BW. The absolute weight of VO, and the volume and length of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) were measured. In both experiments, the absolute weight of VO, GIT length, and their volume increased (linear, quadratic, and/or cubic, P < 0.05) as BW and age increased. In Experiment 1, the relative weight of VO (liver, kidney, heart, and lung) decreased after initially increasing within the first week of life (linear, quadratic, and/or cubic, P < 0.05), whereas the relative weight of all VO decreased as BW increased in Experiment 2 (linear and/or quadratic, P < 0.05). The relative length of small intestine decreased and that of large intestine increased as age increased in Experiment 1 (linear and quadratic, P < 0.05), whereas the relative length of the small and large intestine in Experiment 2 were relatively constant at 80% and 20% of the total length of the intestine, respectively. As age and BW increased, the relative volume of the large intestine to the total volume of the GIT increased (linear and/or quadratic, P < 0.05), while the relative volume of the small intestine decreased (linear and/or quadratic, P < 0.05). In conclusion, results showed that both absolute and relative measurements (weight, volume, and length) of VO were dependent on the BW (age) of the pig.

Polyphosphate and myofibrillar protein extract promote transglutaminase-mediated enhancements of rheological and textural properties of PSE pork meat batters.

The objective of this study was to improve the rheological (storage modulus G'; phase angle δ) and textural (hardness; breaking force) properties of nitrite-cured sausage batters prepared from pale, soft, exudative (PSE) pork with microbial transglutaminase (TG) using isolated myofibrillar protein (MP) or MP extracted by sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP) as substrates. While TG alone significantly enhanced G', δ and hardness, its combination with TPP was more pronounced as these product quality parameters were increased to the level equal to that of the counterpart batter made from normal (red, firm, non-exudative, RFN) pork. The addition of MP had negligible such effect on TG functions. Cooking loss of TG-treated RFN and PSE meat with TPP was minimal but the batters were less bright (L*) than other treatments. Redness (a*) was variable between treatments. Therefore, texture-related properties of comminuted PSE meat products can be restored to the RFN level by TG cross-linking of protein that is extracted by TPP.

Proteome basis for intramuscular variation in color stability of beef semimembranosus.

The objective of the present study was to characterize the proteome basis for intramuscular color stability variations in beef semimembranosus. Semimembranosus muscles from eight carcasses (n=8) were fabricated into 2.54-cm thick color-labile inside (ISM) and color-stable outside (OSM) steaks. One steak for sarcoplasmic proteome analysis was immediately frozen, whereas other steaks were allotted to retail display under aerobic packaging. Color attributes were evaluated instrumentally and biochemically on 0, 2, and 4days. Sarcoplasmic proteome was analyzed using two-dimensional electrophoresis and tandem mass spectrometry. ISM steaks demonstrated greater (P<0.01) abundance of glycolytic enzymes (fructose-bisphosphate aldolase A, phosphoglycerate mutase 2, and beta-enolase) and phosphatidylethanolamine-binding protein 1 than their OSM counterparts. Possible rapid post-mortem glycolysis in ISM, insinuated by over-abundance of glycolytic enzymes, could lead to rapid pH decline during early post-mortem, which in turn could potentially compromise its color stability. These results indicated that differential abundance of sarcoplasmic proteome contributes to intramuscular variations in beef color stability.

Differential abundance of sarcoplasmic proteome explains animal effect on beef Longissimus lumborum color stability.

The sarcoplasmic proteome of beef Longissimus lumborum demonstrating animal-to-animal variation in color stability was examined to correlate proteome profile with color. Longissimus lumborum (36 h post-mortem) muscles were obtained from 73 beef carcasses, aged for 13 days, and fabricated to 2.5-cm steaks. One steak was allotted to retail display, and another was immediately vacuum packaged and frozen at -80°C. Aerobically packaged steaks were stored under display, and color was evaluated on days 0 and 11. The steaks were ranked based on redness and color stability on day 11, and ten color-stable and ten color-labile carcasses were identified. Sarcoplasmic proteome of frozen steaks from the selected carcasses was analyzed. Nine proteins were differentially abundant in color-stable and color-labile steaks. Three glycolytic enzymes (phosphoglucomutase-1, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, and pyruvate kinase M2) were over-abundant in color-stable steaks and positively correlated (P<0.05) to redness and color stability. These results indicated that animal variations in proteome contribute to differences in beef color.

Improving beef color stability: practical strategies and underlying mechanisms.

This paper overviewed the current literature on strategies to improve beef color and attempted to logically explain the fundamental mechanisms involved. Surface color and its stability are critical traits governing the marketability of fresh beef when sold, whereas internal cooked color is utilized as an indicator for doneness at the point of consumption. A multitude of exogenous and endogenous factors interact with the redox biochemistry of myoglobin in post-mortem skeletal muscles. The scientific principles of these biomolecular interactions are applied by the meat industry as interventions for pre-harvest (i.e. diet, animal management) and post-harvest (i.e. packaging, aging, antioxidants) strategies to improve color stability in fresh and cooked beef. Current research suggests that the effects of several of these strategies are specific to type of animal, feeding regimen, packaging system, and muscle source. Meat scientists should explore novel ways to manipulate these factors using a biosystems approach to achieve improved beef color stability, satisfy consumer perception, and increase market profitability.

Proteomics of muscle-specific beef color stability.

The objective of the present study was to differentiate the sarcoplasmic proteome of color-stable (Longissimus lumborum; LL) and color-labile (Psoas major; PM) beef muscles. LL and PM muscles from seven beef carcasses (24 h post-mortem) were fabricated into 2.54 cm steaks, aerobically packaged, and assigned to refrigerated retail display for 9 days. LL steaks demonstrated greater (P < 0.05) color stability and lower (P < 0.05) lipid oxidation than PM steaks. Proteome analyses identified 16 differentially abundant proteins in LL and PM, including antioxidant proteins and chaperones. Proteins demonstrating positive correlation with redness (aldose reductase, creatine kinase, and ß-enolase) and color stability (peroxiredoxin-2, peptide methionine sulfoxide reductase, and heat shock protein-27 kDa) were overabundant in LL, whereas the protein overabundant in PM (mitochondrial aconitase) exhibited negative correlation with redness. The color stability of LL could be attributed to the overabundance of antioxidant proteins and chaperones, and this finding suggests the necessity of developing muscle-specific processing strategies to improve beef color.