ABSTRACT
While 30%-70% of RSV-infected infants develop bronchiolitis, 2% require hospitalization. It is not clear why disease severity differs among healthy, full-term infants; however, virus titers, inflammation, and Th2 bias are proposed explanations. While TLR4 is associated with these disease phenotypes, the role of this receptor in respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) pathogenesis is controversial. Here, we evaluated the interaction between TLR4 and environmental factors in RSV disease and defined the immune mediators associated with severe illness. Two independent populations of infants with RSV bronchiolitis revealed that the severity of RSV infection is determined by the TLR4 genotype of the individual and by environmental exposure to LPS. RSV-infected infants with severe disease exhibited a high GATA3/T-bet ratio, which manifested as a high IL-4/IFN-γ ratio in respiratory secretions. The IL-4/IFN-γ ratio present in infants with severe RSV is indicative of Th2 polarization. Murine models of RSV infection confirmed that LPS exposure, Tlr4 genotype, and Th2 polarization influence disease phenotypes. Together, the results of this study identify environmental and genetic factors that influence RSV pathogenesis and reveal that a high IL-4/IFN-γ ratio is associated with severe disease. Moreover, these molecules should be explored as potential targets for therapeutic intervention.
Subject(s)
Bronchiolitis, Viral , Environmental Exposure/adverse effects , Genotype , Lipopolysaccharides/toxicity , Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infections , Respiratory Syncytial Viruses , Th2 Cells/immunology , Toll-Like Receptor 4 , Animals , Bronchiolitis, Viral/genetics , Bronchiolitis, Viral/immunology , Bronchiolitis, Viral/pathology , Disease Models, Animal , Female , GATA3 Transcription Factor/genetics , GATA3 Transcription Factor/immunology , Humans , Infant , Infant, Newborn , Interferon-gamma/genetics , Interferon-gamma/immunology , Interleukin-4/genetics , Interleukin-4/immunology , Male , Mice , Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infections/genetics , Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infections/immunology , Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infections/pathology , T-Box Domain Proteins/genetics , T-Box Domain Proteins/immunology , Th2 Cells/pathology , Toll-Like Receptor 4/genetics , Toll-Like Receptor 4/immunologyABSTRACT
RATIONALE: Human rhinoviruses (HRV) are the leading cause of upper respiratory infections and have been postulated to trigger asthma exacerbations. However, whether HRV are detected during crises because upper respiratory infections often accompany asthma attacks, or because they specifically elicit exacerbations, is unclear. Moreover, although several hypotheses have been advanced to explain virus-induced exacerbations, their mechanism remains unclear. OBJECTIVES: To determine the role of HRV in pediatric asthma exacerbations and the mechanisms mediating wheezing. METHODS: We prospectively studied 409 children with asthma presenting with upper respiratory infection in the presence or absence of wheezing. Candidate viral and immune mediators of illness were compared among children with asthma with different degrees of severity of acute asthma. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: HRV infections specifically associated with asthma exacerbations, even after adjusting for relevant demographic and clinical variables defined a priori (odds ratio, 1.90; 95% confidence interval, 1.21-2.99; P = 0.005). No difference in virus titers, HRV species, and inflammatory or allergic molecules was observed between wheezing and nonwheezing children infected with HRV. Type III IFN-λ(1) levels were higher in wheezing children infected with HRV compared with nonwheezing (P < 0.001) and increased with worsening symptoms (P < 0.001). Moreover, after adjusting for IFN-λ(1), children with asthma infected with HRV were no longer more likely to wheeze than those who were HRV-negative (odds ratio, 1.18; 95% confidence interval, 0.57-2.46; P = 0.66). CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that HRV infections in children with asthma are specifically associated with acute wheezing, and that type III IFN-λ(1) responses mediate exacerbations caused by HRV. Modulation of IFN- λ(1) should be studied as a therapeutic target for exacerbations caused by HRV.
