Gut microbiome modulates response to anti-PD-1 immunotherapy in melanoma patients.

Preclinical mouse models suggest that the gut microbiome modulates tumor response to checkpoint blockade immunotherapy; however, this has not been well-characterized in human cancer patients. Here we examined the oral and gut microbiome of melanoma patients undergoing anti-programmed cell death 1 protein (PD-1) immunotherapy (n = 112). Significant differences were observed in the diversity and composition of the patient gut microbiome of responders versus nonresponders. Analysis of patient fecal microbiome samples (n = 43, 30 responders, 13 nonresponders) showed significantly higher alpha diversity (P < 0.01) and relative abundance of bacteria of the Ruminococcaceae family (P < 0.01) in responding patients. Metagenomic studies revealed functional differences in gut bacteria in responders, including enrichment of anabolic pathways. Immune profiling suggested enhanced systemic and antitumor immunity in responding patients with a favorable gut microbiome as well as in germ-free mice receiving fecal transplants from responding patients. Together, these data have important implications for the treatment of melanoma patients with immune checkpoint inhibitors.

Ibrutinib modulates the immunosuppressive CLL microenvironment through STAT3-mediated suppression of regulatory B-cell function and inhibition of the PD-1/PD-L1 pathway.

Ibrutinib, a covalent inhibitor of Bruton Tyrosine Kinase (BTK), is approved for treatment of patients with relapsed/refractory or treatment-naïve chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). Besides directly inhibiting BTK, ibrutinib possesses immunomodulatory properties through targeting multiple signaling pathways. Understanding how this ancillary property of ibrutinib modifies the CLL microenvironment is crucial for further exploration of immune responses in this disease and devising future combination therapies. Here, we investigated the mechanisms underlying the immunomodulatory properties of ibrutinib. In peripheral blood samples collected prospectively from CLL patients treated with ibrutinib monotherapy, we observed selective and durable downregulation of PD-L1 on CLL cells by 3 months post-treatment. Further analysis showed that this effect was mediated through inhibition of the constitutively active signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) in CLL cells. Similar downregulation of PD-1 was observed in CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. We also demonstrated reduced interleukin (IL)-10 production by CLL cells in patients receiving ibrutinib, which was also linked to suppression of STAT3 phosphorylation. Taken together, these findings provide a mechanistic basis for immunomodulation by ibrutinib through inhibition of the STAT3 pathway, critical in inducing and sustaining tumor immune tolerance. The data also merit testing of combination treatments combining ibrutinib with agents capable of augmenting its immunomodulatory effects.

Cord blood NK cells engineered to express IL-15 and a CD19-targeted CAR show long-term persistence and potent antitumor activity.

Chimeric antigen receptors (CARs) have been used to redirect the specificity of autologous T cells against leukemia and lymphoma with promising clinical results. Extending this approach to allogeneic T cells is problematic as they carry a significant risk of graft-versus-host disease (GVHD). Natural killer (NK) cells are highly cytotoxic effectors, killing their targets in a non-antigen-specific manner without causing GVHD. Cord blood (CB) offers an attractive, allogeneic, off-the-self source of NK cells for immunotherapy. We transduced CB-derived NK cells with a retroviral vector incorporating the genes for CAR-CD19, IL-15 and inducible caspase-9-based suicide gene (iC9), and demonstrated efficient killing of CD19-expressing cell lines and primary leukemia cells in vitro, with marked prolongation of survival in a xenograft Raji lymphoma murine model. Interleukin-15 (IL-15) production by the transduced CB-NK cells critically improved their function. Moreover, iC9/CAR.19/IL-15 CB-NK cells were readily eliminated upon pharmacologic activation of the iC9 suicide gene. In conclusion, we have developed a novel approach to immunotherapy using engineered CB-derived NK cells, which are easy to produce, exhibit striking efficacy and incorporate safety measures to limit toxicity. This approach should greatly improve the logistics of delivering this therapy to large numbers of patients, a major limitation to current CAR-T-cell therapies.

Latent cytomegalovirus infection enhances anti-tumour cytotoxicity through accumulation of NKG2C+ NK cells in healthy humans.

Cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection markedly expands NKG2C+/NKG2A- NK cells, which are potent killers of infected cells expressing human leucocyte antigen (HLA)-E. As HLA-E is also over-expressed in several haematological malignancies and CMV has been linked to a reduced risk of leukaemic relapse, we determined the impact of latent CMV infection on NK cell cytotoxicity against four tumour target cell lines with varying levels of HLA-E expression. NK cell cytotoxicity against K562 (leukaemia origin) and U266 (multiple myeloma origin) target cells was strikingly greater in healthy CMV-seropositive donors than seronegative donors and was associated strongly with target cell HLA-E and NK cell NKG2C expression. NK cell cytotoxicity against HLA-E transfected lymphoma target cells (221.AEH) was ∼threefold higher with CMV, while NK cell cytotoxicity against non-transfected 721.221 cells was identical between the CMV groups. NK cell degranulation (CD107a(+) ) and interferon (IFN)-γ production to 221.AEH cells was localized almost exclusively to the NKG2C subset, and antibody blocking of NKG2C completely eliminated the effect of CMV on NK cell cytotoxicity against 221.AEH cells. Moreover, 221.AEH feeder cells and interleukin (IL)-15 were found to expand NKG2C(+) /NKG2A(-) NK cells preferentially from CMV-seronegative donors and increase NK cell cytotoxicity against HLA-E(+) tumour cell lines. We conclude that latent CMV infection enhances NK cell cytotoxicity through accumulation of NKG2C(+) NK cells, which may be beneficial in preventing the initiation and progression of haematological malignancies characterized by high HLA-E expression.

Symptomatic BK Virus Infection Is Associated With Kidney Function Decline and Poor Overall Survival in Allogeneic Hematopoietic Stem Cell Recipients.

Nephropathy due to BK virus (BKV) infection is an evolving challenge in patients undergoing hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). We hypothesized that BKV infection was a marker of kidney function decline and a poor prognostic factor in HSCT recipients who experience this complication. In this retrospective study, we analyzed all patients who underwent their first allogeneic HSCT at our institution between 2004 and 2012. We evaluated the incidence of persistent kidney function decline, which was defined as a confirmed reduction in estimated glomerular filtration rate of at least 25% from baseline using the Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology equation. Cox proportional hazard regression was used to model the cause-specific hazard of kidney function decline, and the Fine-Gray method was used to account for the competing risks of death. Among 2477 recipients of a first allogeneic HSCT, BK viruria was detected in 25% (n = 629) and kidney function decline in 944 (38.1%). On multivariate analysis, after adjusting for age, sex, acute graft-versus-host disease (GVHD), chronic GVHD, preparative conditioning regimen, and graft source, BK viruria remained a significant risk factor for kidney function decline (p < 0.001). In addition, patients with BKV infection and kidney function decline experienced worse overall survival. After allogeneic HSCT, BKV infection was strongly and independently associated with subsequent kidney function decline and worse patient survival after HSCT.

The TGF-ß/SMAD pathway is an important mechanism for NK cell immune evasion in childhood B-acute lymphoblastic leukemia.

Natural killer (NK) cells are key components of the innate immune system, providing potent antitumor immunity. Here, we show that the tumor growth factor-ß (TGF-ß)/SMAD signaling pathway is an important mechanism for NK cell immune evasion in childhood B-acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). We characterized NK cells in 50 consecutive children with B-ALL at diagnosis, end induction and during maintenance therapy compared with age-matched controls. ALL-NK cells at diagnosis had an inhibitory phenotype associated with impaired function, most notably interferon-γ production and cytotoxicity. By maintenance therapy, these phenotypic and functional abnormalities partially normalized; however, cytotoxicity against autologous blasts remained impaired. We identified ALL-derived TGF-ß1 to be an important mediator of leukemia-induced NK cell dysfunction. The TGF-ß/SMAD signaling pathway was constitutively activated in ALL-NK cells at diagnosis and end induction when compared with healthy controls and patients during maintenance therapy. Culture of ALL blasts with healthy NK cells induced NK dysfunction and an inhibitory phenotype, mediated by activation of the TGF-ß/SMAD signaling pathway, and abrogated by blocking TGF-ß. These data indicate that by regulating the TGF-ß/SMAD pathway, ALL blasts induce changes in NK cells to evade innate immune surveillance, thus highlighting the importance of developing novel therapies to target this inhibitory pathway and restore antileukemic cytotoxicity.

Umbilical cord blood graft engineering: challenges and opportunities.

We are entering a very exciting era in umbilical cord blood transplantation (UCBT), where many of the associated formidable challenges may become treatable by ex vivo graft manipulation and/or adoptive immunotherapy utilizing specific cellular products. We envisage the use of double UCBT rather than single UCBT for most patients; this allows for greater ability to treat larger patients as well as to manipulate the graft. Ex vivo expansion and/or fucosylation of one cord will achieve more rapid engraftment, minimize the period of neutropenia and also give certainty that the other cord will provide long-term engraftment/immune reconstitution. The non-expanded (and future dominant) cord could be chosen for characteristics such as better HLA matching to minimize GvHD, or larger cell counts to enable part of the unit to be utilized for the development of specific cellular therapies such as the production of virus-specific T-cells or chimeric-antigen receptor T-cells which are reviewed in this study.

FOXP3 is a direct target of miR15a/16 in umbilical cord blood regulatory T cells.

Exact mechanism of action of umbilical cord blood (CB)-derived regulatory T cells (Tregs) in the prevention of GVHD remains unclear. On the basis of selective overexpression of peptidase inhibitor 16 in CB Tregs, we explored the related p53 pathway, which has been shown to negatively regulate miR15a/16 expression. Significantly lower levels of miR15a/16 were observed in CB Tregs when compared with conventional CB T cells (Tcons). In a xenogeneic GVHD mouse model, lower levels of miR15a/16 were also found in Treg recipients, which correlated with a better GVHD score. Forced overexpression of miR15a/16 in CB Tregs led to inhibition of FOXP3 and CTLA4 expression and partial reversal of Treg-mediated suppression in an allogeneic mixed lymphocyte reaction that correlated with the reversal of FOXP3 demethylation in CB Tregs. On the other hand, miR15a/16 knockdown in CB Tcons led to expression of FOXP3 and CTLA4 and suppression of allogeneic lymphocyte proliferation. Using a luciferase-based mutagenesis assay, FOXP3 was determined to be a direct target of miR15a and miR16. We propose that miR15a/16 has an important role in mediating the suppressive function of CB Tregs and these microRNAs may have a 'toggle-switch' function in Treg/Tcon plasticity.

Ubiquitin-like (UBX)-domain-containing protein, UBXN2A, promotes cell death by interfering with the p53-Mortalin interactions in colon cancer cells.

Mortalin (mot-2) induces inactivation of the tumor suppressor p53's transcriptional and apoptotic functions by cytoplasmic sequestration of p53 in select cancers. The mot-2-dependent cytoprotective function enables cancer cells to support malignant transformation. Abrogating the p53-mot-2 interaction can control or slow down the growth of cancer cells. In this study, we report the discovery of a ubiquitin-like (UBX)-domain-containing protein, UBXN2A, which binds to mot-2 and consequently inhibits the binding between mot-2 and p53. Genetic analysis showed that UBXN2A binds to mot-2's substrate binding domain, and it partly overlaps p53's binding site indicating UBXN2A and p53 likely bind to mot-2 competitively. By binding to mot-2, UBXN2A releases p53 from cytosolic sequestration, rescuing the tumor suppressor functions of p53. Biochemical analysis and functional assays showed that the overexpression of UBXN2A and the functional consequences of unsequestered p53 trigger p53-dependent apoptosis. Cells expressing shRNA against UBXN2A showed the opposite effect of that seen with UBXN2A overexpression. The expression of UBXN2A and its apoptotic effects were not observed in normal colonic epithelial cells and p53-/- colon cancer cells. Finally, significant reduction in tumor volume in a xenograft mouse model in response to UBXN2A expression was verified in vivo. Our results introduce UBXN2A as a home defense response protein, which can reconstitute inactive p53-dependent apoptotic pathways. Inhibition of mot-2-p53 interaction by UBXN2A is an attractive therapeutic strategy in mot-2-elevated tumors.

Escalating-dose HLA-mismatched DLI is safe for the treatment of leukaemia relapse following alemtuzumab-based myeloablative allo-SCT.

Although the feasibility of using HLA-mismatched unrelated donors as an alternate graft source for haematopoietic SCT (HSCT) has been shown, little is known about the safety of HLA-mismatched DLI for the treatment of relapse. We examined the outcome of 58 consecutive leukaemia patients who received escalating-dose DLI for treatment of relapse after alemtuzumab-conditioned myeloablative unrelated donor HSCT at our institution. High-resolution HLA typing on stored DNA samples revealed mismatches in 28/58 patients who were considered HLA-matched at the time of transplantation. Following DLI from HLA-matched (10/10) (n=30) or -mismatched (7-9/10) (n=28) unrelated donors, we found no significant difference in the incidence of acute GVHD (17.2% versus 23.1%, P=0.59), probability of remission at 3 years (62.1% versus 63.9%, P=0.89) or 5-year OS (89.8% versus 77.7%, P=0.22). We conclude that escalating-dose DLI can be safely given to HLA-mismatched recipients following T-depleted myeloablative HSCT.

KIR2DS1 genotype predicts for complete cytogenetic response and survival in newly diagnosed chronic myeloid leukemia patients treated with imatinib.

Natural killer (NK) cells are expanded in chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) patients on tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKI) and exert cytotoxicity. The inherited repertoire of killer immunoglobulin-like receptors (KIR) may influence response to TKI. We investigated the impact of KIR-genotype on outcome in 166 chronic phase CML patients on first-line imatinib treatment. We validated our findings in an independent patient group. On multivariate analysis, KIR2DS1 genotype (RR=1.51, P=0.03) and Sokal risk score (low-risk RR=1, intermediate-risk RR=1.53, P=0.04, high-risk RR=1.69, P=0.034) were the only independent predictors for failure to achieve complete cytogenetic response (CCyR). Furthermore, KIR2DS1 was the only factor predicting shorter progression-free (PFS) (RR=3.1, P=0.03) and overall survival (OS) (RR=2.6, P=0.04). The association between KIR2DS1 and CCyR, PFS and OS was validated by KIR genotyping in 174 CML patients on first-line imatinib in the UK multi-center SPIRIT-1 trial; in this cohort, KIR2DS1(+) patients had significantly lower 2-year probabilities of achieving CCyR (76.9 vs 87.9%, P=0.003), PFS (85.3 vs 98.1%, P=0.007) and OS (94.4 vs 100%, P=0.015) than KIR2DS1(-) patients. The impact of KIR2DS1 on CCyR was greatest when the ligand for the corresponding inhibitory receptor, KIR2DL1, was absent (P=0.00006). Our data suggest a novel role for KIR-HLA immunogenetics in CML patients on TKI.

Modeling pathogenesis of Huntington's disease with inducible neuroprogenitor cells.

Huntington's disease (HD) is caused by an abnormal expansion of CAG trinucleotide repeats encoding polyglutamine (polyQ) in the first exon of the huntingtin (htt) gene. Despite considerable efforts, the pathogenesis of HD remains largely unclear due to a paucity of models that can reliably reproduce the pathological characteristics of HD. Here, we report a neuronal cell model of HD using the previously established tetracycline regulated rat neuroprogenitor cell line, HC2S2. Stable expression of enhanced green fluorescence protein tagged htt exon 1 (referred to as 28Q and 74Q, respectively) in the HC2S2 cells did not affect rapid neuronal differentiation. However, compared to the cells expressing wild type htt, the cell line expressing mutant htt showed an increase in time-dependent cell death and neuritic degeneration, and displayed increased vulnerability to oxidative stress. Increased protein aggregation during the process of neuronal aging or when the cells were exposed to oxidative stress reagents was detected in the cell line expressing 74Q but not in its counterpart. These results suggest that the neuroprogenitor cell lines mimic the major neuropathological characteristics of HD and may provide a useful tool for studying the neuropathogenesis of HD and for high throughput screening of therapeutic compounds.

Peptide vaccine therapy for leukemia.

Despite recent advances in the treatment of leukemia, many patients will relapse and novel therapeutic strategies are therefore needed. The identification of a number of leukemia-associated antigen (LAA) and advances in understanding the fundamentals of tumor immunology have fostered the progress of both active (vaccines) and adoptive immunotherapy. Preliminary results from a number of studies suggest that vaccination using peptides derived from a number of LAA induce immune responses which may translate into clinical responses. These promising early results point the way to optimizing the administration of peptide vaccines. In this review, we will focus on the results of clinical trials of vaccination in leukemia and potential strategies to enhance the efficacy of immunotherapy in the future.

Improved outcome following allogeneic stem cell transplantation in chronic myeloid leukemia is associated with higher expression of BMI-1 and immune responses to BMI-1 protein.

BMI-1 and EZH2 are polycomb group (PcG) proteins that maintain self-renewal of stem cells, and are overexpressed in leukemia. To investigate the potential of PcG proteins as leukemia-associated antigens, and as targets for graft-versus-leukemia (GVL) effects, we studied cells obtained from 86 patients with chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) and 25 human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-A*0201(+) sibling donors collected before allogeneic stem cell transplantation (SCT). Although BMI-1 overexpression in CD34(+) cells of CML patients treated with pharmacotherapy is associated with poor prognosis, we found, conversely, that in CML patients treated with SCT, a higher expression of BMI-1, and correspondingly a lower expression of its target for repression, CDKN2A, is associated with improved leukemia-free survival. Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) responses to the BMI-1 peptide were detected in 5 of 25 (20%) donors, and in 8 of 19 (42%) HLA-A*0201(+) CML patients. BMI-1 generated more total and high-avidity immune responses, and was more immunogenic than EZH2. PcG-specific CTLs had a memory phenotype, were readily expanded in short-term cultures and were detected after SCT in recipients of PcG-specific CTL-positive donors. A higher BMI-1 expression in CML CD34(+) progenitors was associated with native BMI-1 immune responses. These immune responses to PcG proteins may target leukemia stem cells and have relevance for disease control by GVL.

Role of allo-SCT for CML in 2010.

Tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) have revolutionized the treatment of CML. However, for a minority of patients who fail TKI or progress to advanced phase disease, allo-SCT remains the only therapeutic option. This review addresses the current indications for allo-SCT in CML and the role of conditioning (myeloablative vs reduced intensity), donor source (sibling vs volunteer unrelated donor), graft source (BM vs peripheral blood vs cord) and the value of pre-, peri- and post transplant use of TKI in the management of CML.

Management of relapse after allo-SCT for AML and the role of second transplantation.

Relapse after allo-SCT for AML carries very poor prognosis. Second allo-SCT, although curative, is not an appropriate treatment option for a large number of relapsing patients (only 2-20% patients receive a second allo-SCT), and efforts to increase the number of patients who may benefit from a second allo-SCT are ongoing. In addition, understanding the varied biological processes that are operative in disease relapse has encouraged the development of novel therapies, and could be beneficial to patients who are currently managed conservatively with supportive care for relapsed disease. Incorporating novel combinations of drugs with immunomodulation, although theoretically attractive, should be tested in the setting of clinical trials. In this review, we discuss the currently available approaches for relapsed AML after allo-SCT.