Systematic assessment of the quality and integrity of popular mental health smartphone apps using the American Psychiatric Association's app evaluation model.

Mobile phones are playing an increasingly important role in supporting mental health, by providing confidential, accessible and scalable support for individuals who may not seek or have means of accessing professional help. There are concerns, however, that many apps claiming to support mental health do not meet professional, ethical or evidence-based standards. App store search algorithms favour popularity (reviews and downloads) and commercial factors (in-app purchases), with what appears to be low prioritisation of safety or effectiveness features. In this paper, the most visible 100 apps for "depression", "anxiety" and/or "mood" on the Google Play and Apple App stores were selected for assessment using the American Psychiatric Association App Evaluation model. This model systematically assesses apps across five broad steps: accessibility, integrity, clinical and research evidence base, user engagement and interoperability. Assessment is hierarchical, with the most fundamental requirements of apps assessed first, with apps excluded at each step if they do not meet the criteria. The relationship between app quality and app store visibility was first analysed. App quality was also compared across four different app function types: mental health promotion or psychoeducation; monitoring or tracking; assessment or prevention; and intervention or treatment. Of the 92 apps assessed (after eight failed to meet inclusion criteria), half failed to meet the first criterion step of accessibility, and a further 20% of the remaining apps failed to meet the second criterion step of security and privacy. Only three of the 10 apps most visible on app stores met the criteria for research/clinical base and engagement/ease of use, and only one app fulfilled all five criterion steps of the evaluation model. Quality did not differ significantly across app function type. There was no significant correlation between app quality and app store visibility, which presents a potential risk to vulnerable consumers. The findings of this review highlight the need for greater accountability of app developers to meet, and report, at least minimum quality and integrity standards for their apps. Recommendations are also provided to assist users and clinicians to make informed choices in their selection of reputable and effective mental health apps.

Mental Health Consequences of Adversity in Australia: National Bushfires Associated With Increased Depressive Symptoms, While COVID-19 Pandemic Associated With Increased Symptoms of Anxiety.

High quality monitoring of mental health and well-being over an extended period is essential to understand how communities respond to the COVID-19 pandemic and how to best tailor interventions. Multiple community threats may also have cumulative impact on mental health, so examination across several contexts is important. The objective of this study is to report on changes in mental health and well-being in response to the Australian bushfires and COVID-19 pandemic. This study utilized an Experience-Sampling-Method (ESM), using the smartphone-based mood monitoring application, MoodPrism. Participants were prompted once a day to complete a brief survey inquiring about symptoms of depression and anxiety, and several well-being indices, including arousal, emotional valence, self-esteem, motivation, social connectedness, meaning and purpose, and control. Participants were N = 755 Australians (aged 13 years and above) who downloaded and used MoodPrism, between 2018 and 2020. Results showed that anxiety symptoms significantly increased during the COVID-19 pandemic, but not during the bushfires. This may be explained by concurrent feelings of social connectedness maintained during the bushfires but not during the pandemic. In contrast, depressive symptoms increased significantly during the bushfires, which maintained during the pandemic. Most indices of well-being decreased significantly during the bushfires, and further again during the pandemic. Study findings highlight the unique responses to the bushfire and COVID-19 crises, revealing specific areas of resilience and vulnerability. Such information can help inform the development of public health interventions or individual clinical treatment, to improve treatment approaches and preparedness for potential future community disasters.

Exploring self-concept, wellbeing and distress in therapeutic songwriting participants following acquired brain injury: A case series analysis.

Acquired brain injury (ABI) presents a significant threat to sense of self and necessitates a complex process of psychosocial adjustment. Self-concept changes remain understudied in the early stages of inpatient rehabilitation. The aim of the current study was to examine changes in self-concept, distress, wellbeing and functional skills for five inpatients undertaking a music therapy intervention within a subacute rehabilitation centre in Victoria, Australia. Participants completed a six-week, 12-session therapeutic songwriting programme to produce past-, current- and future-self-focused songs. A range of self-concept, subjective wellbeing and distress measures were completed pre-, mid- and post-intervention. A descriptive case series approach was applied to determine trends in pre-post scores for five individual cases. Participants showing the greatest gains across self-concept and subjective wellbeing indices also showed the greatest functional gains on the Functional Independence Measure (FIM) from admission to discharge. The current study highlights the importance of examining early changes in self-concept, wellbeing and distress in subacute rehabilitation, and suggests that individualised songwriting programmes warrant further research attention in neurological populations.

Examining the processes and effects of an exemplar school-based well-being approach on student competency, autonomy and relatedness.

As the application of positive education becomes more prevalent in schools, the importance of gathering information on optimal processes and outcomes associated with the programs, increases. The fulfillment of psychological needs such as competence, relatedness and autonomy, have seldomly been explored, yet they seem inextricably linked with well-being. It is also important to examine program qualities relating to delivery, relevance and practice opportunities. The current study examines (i) psychological need satisfaction as an outcome, using a quasi-experimental design and (ii) the processes involved in program delivery, using an explanatory sequential design. Year 9 students participating in the Geelong Grammar School (GGS) Timbertop well-being experience in Australia (n = 119) and 79 best matched well-being as usual (WBAU) students completed a psychological need satisfaction survey. A subgroup of 46 students also participated in focus groups. Mixed design analyses of variance indicated that the Timbertop Positive Education students experienced improved competence, relatedness and autonomy after the school year compared with 'WBAU' students. Findings from student focus groups also support the importance of well sequenced, active, focused and explicit learning processes for program success. This study provides support for building psychological need satisfaction with a positive education program that adopts practical, interactive and goal-oriented well-being learnings. This is encouraging and supports a context adapted replication and evaluation of the general Positive Education approach adopted by GGS in other schools.

A therapeutic songwriting intervention to promote reconstruction of self-concept and enhance well-being following brain or spinal cord injury: pilot randomized controlled trial.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the size of the effects and feasibility (recruitment and retention rates) of a therapeutic songwriting protocol for in-patients and community-dwelling people with acquired brain injury or spinal cord injury. DESIGN: Randomized controlled trial with songwriting intervention and care-as-usual control groups, in a mixed measures design assessed at three time points. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 47 participants (3 in-patients with acquired brain injury, 20 community participants with acquired brain injury, 12 in-patients with spinal cord injury, and 12 community participants with spinal cord injury: 23 1208 days post injury). INTERVENTIONS: The intervention group received a 12-session identity-targeted songwriting programme, where participants created three songs reflecting on perceptions of past, present, and future self. Control participants received care as usual. MEASURES: Baseline, postintervention, and follow-up measures comprised the Head Injury Semantic Differential Scale (primary outcome measure), Patient Health Questionnaire-9, Emotion Regulation Questionnaire, and Satisfaction with Life Scale. RESULTS: No significant between group pre-post intervention differences were found on the primary self-concept measure, the Head Injury Semantic Differential Scale ( p = 0.38, d = 0.44). Significant and large effect sizes from baseline to post between groups in favour of the songwriting group for Satisfaction with Life ( p = 0.04, n2 p = 0.14). There were no significant between group pre-post interaction effects for the Emotion Regulation Suppression subscale ( p = 0.12, n2 p = -0.08) although scores decreased in the songwriting group over time while increasing for the standard care group. There were no significant differences in baseline to follow-up between groups in any other outcome measures. Recruitment was challenging due to the small number of people eligible to participate combined with poor uptake by eligible participants, particularly the in-patient group. Retention rates were higher for the community-dwelling cohorts. CONCLUSION: This study demonstrates the challenges in recruitment and retention of participants invited to participate in a music therapy study. Findings suggest this identity-focused therapeutic songwriting protocols may be more beneficial for people who have transitioned from in-patient to community-contexts given the greater proportion of participants who consent and complete the intervention. Preliminary effects in favour of the intervention group were detected in a range of well-being measures suggesting that a larger study is warranted.

A randomized controlled trial of three smartphone apps for enhancing public mental health.

Many smartphone applications (apps) for mental health (MHapps) are available to the public. However, few have been the subject of a randomized controlled trial (RCT), and the change processes that are hypothesized to mediate claimed effects have not been previously studied. This RCT compared the efficacy of three publicly available MHapps to a waitlist control condition in a community sample, in which no MHapp was provided. The three MHapps included cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) toolkit app MoodKit, mood tracking app MoodPrism, and CBT strategy app MoodMission. Participants were randomly allocated to each condition, completed a baseline assessment, downloaded their allocated MHapp, and completed a second assessment 30 days later, with n = 226 included in final analyses (81% female; M age = 34 years). Compared to the control condition, all MHapp groups experienced increases in mental wellbeing, MoodKit and MoodMission groups experienced decreases in depression, and no groups experienced effects on anxiety. Mediated regressions revealed that increasing coping self-efficacy, rather than emotional self-awareness or mental health literacy, was the underlying process contributing to effects on mental health for all three MHapps. MHapps appear to be an effective solution for improving public mental health, notably by improving users' confidence in their ability to cope.

Meaning Making Process and Recovery Journeys Explored Through Songwriting in Early Neurorehabilitation: Exploring the Perspectives of Participants of Their Self-Composed Songs Through the Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis.

Objectives: This pilot study examined how 15 participants in early rehabilitation described their self-composed Songs 6- to 12-months following participation in a 6-week identity-focused songwriting program. Specific focus was given to the process of meaning making and identity reconstruction in the participants' self-composed songs. Methods: Data were collected through individual semi-structured interviews (n = 15) and analyzed using interpretative phenomenological analysis. Findings were developed idiographically as super-ordinate themes unique to each participant, then analyzed across cases to identify recurrent themes and subthemes. Results: Participants described the songwriting process as taking them through one of four distinct recovery journeys described by individuals following acquired neurodisability who underwent a focused therapeutic songwriting program. These included (1) re-conceptualizing values and shifting perspectives about self (my body is broken but my mind has been set free); (2) recognizing acquired inner resources to negotiate discrepancies in self (hope is there); (3) confirming existing values and identifying resources and coping strategies (I have what I need to move forward); (4) confirming previously held values and ongoing process of negotiating discrepancies in self (I don't yet have the answers). Conclusion: The current study provides insight into the nature and process of meaning making and recovery journeys perceived by individuals with neurodisability. Our findings suggest that songwriting could be a therapeutic tool to facilitate identity reconstruction in neurorehabilitation.

Predicting Depression From Language-Based Emotion Dynamics: Longitudinal Analysis of Facebook and Twitter Status Updates.

BACKGROUND: Frequent expression of negative emotion words on social media has been linked to depression. However, metrics have relied on average values, not dynamic measures of emotional volatility. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to report on the associations between depression severity and the variability (time-unstructured) and instability (time-structured) in emotion word expression on Facebook and Twitter across status updates. METHODS: Status updates and depression severity ratings of 29 Facebook users and 49 Twitter users were collected through the app MoodPrism. The average proportion of positive and negative emotion words used, within-person variability, and instability were computed. RESULTS: Negative emotion word instability was a significant predictor of greater depression severity on Facebook (rs(29)=.44, P=.02, 95% CI 0.09-0.69), even after controlling for the average proportion of negative emotion words used (partial rs(26)=.51, P=.006) and within-person variability (partial rs(26)=.49, P=.009). A different pattern emerged on Twitter where greater negative emotion word variability indicated lower depression severity (rs(49)=-.34, P=.01, 95% CI -0.58 to 0.09). Differences between Facebook and Twitter users in their emotion word patterns and psychological characteristics were also explored. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest that negative emotion word instability may be a simple yet sensitive measure of time-structured variability, useful when screening for depression through social media, though its usefulness may depend on the social media platform.

Personal identity narratives of therapeutic songwriting participants following Spinal Cord Injury: A case series analysis.

CONTEXT/OBJECTIVE: Spinal Cord Injury (SCI) patients face unique identity challenges associated with physical limitations, higher comorbid depression, increased suicidality and reduced subjective well-being. Post-injury identity is often unaddressed in subacute rehabilitation environments where critical physical and functional rehabilitation goals are prioritized. Therapeutic songwriting has demonstrated prior efficacy in promoting healthy adjustment and as a means of expression for post-injury narratives. The current study sought to examine the identity narratives of therapeutic songwriting participants. DESIGN: Case-series analysis of the individual identity trajectories of eight individuals. SETTING: Subacute rehabilitation facility, Victoria, Australia. PARTICIPANTS: Eight individuals with an SCI; 7 males and 1 female. INTERVENTION: Six-week therapeutic songwriting intervention facilitated by a music therapist to promote identity rehabilitation. OUTCOME MEASURES: Identity, subjective well-being and distress, emotional state. RESULTS: Three participants demonstrated positive trajectories and a further three showed negative trajectories; remaining participants were ambiguous in their response. Injury severity differentiated those with positive trajectories from those with negative trajectories, with greater injury severity apparent for those showing negative trends. Self-concept also improved more in those with positive trajectories. Core demographic variables did not however meaningfully predict the direction of change in core identity or wellbeing indices. CONCLUSION: Identity-focused songwriting holds promise as a means of promoting healthy identity reintegration. Further research on benefits for those with less severe spinal injuries is warranted.

Engagement in mobile phone app for self-monitoring of emotional wellbeing predicts changes in mental health: MoodPrism.

BACKGROUND: Mobile apps are being used increasingly for mental health purposes, but evidence of their efficacy remains limited. The mechanisms underlying any effects of such apps are also unclear. This study examined the effectiveness of a self-monitoring mobile phone app by investigating the relationships between app engagement and mental health outcomes. METHOD: Participants downloaded the MoodPrism app from the iOS and Android app stores, completing in-app assessments at start of use and again 30days later. The app prompted participants daily to complete a short mood questionnaire and formulated their responses into a mood diary. Data from 234 assessment completers (73% female; M age = 34.8 years) were analysed via hierarchical and mediation regressions. RESULTS: In this community sample, app engagement ratings predicted decreases in depression and anxiety, and increases in mental well-being. These effects were mediated by increases in emotional self-awareness, but only for participants who were clinically depressed or anxious at the time of the baseline assessment. Mental health literacy and coping self-efficacy did not play mediating roles. LIMITATIONS: Findings suggest that other influential mediators may have not been measured, and future studies could verify the findings by using alternative methodologies, such as comparison with a control group. CONCLUSIONS: Engaging with an emotional wellbeing self-monitoring app may reduce depressive and anxious symptoms, and increase mental well-being. Increases in emotional self-awareness may mediate these changes in clinical populations, and further research is needed to reveal other mechanisms that mental health apps can utilize.

Emotional Responses to Music: Shifts in Frontal Brain Asymmetry Mark Periods of Musical Change.

Recent studies have demonstrated increased activity in brain regions associated with emotion and reward when listening to pleasurable music. Unexpected change in musical features intensity and tempo - and thereby enhanced tension and anticipation - is proposed to be one of the primary mechanisms by which music induces a strong emotional response in listeners. Whether such musical features coincide with central measures of emotional response has not, however, been extensively examined. In this study, subjective and physiological measures of experienced emotion were obtained continuously from 18 participants (12 females, 6 males; 18-38 years) who listened to four stimuli-pleasant music, unpleasant music (dissonant manipulations of their own music), neutral music, and no music, in a counter-balanced order. Each stimulus was presented twice: electroencephalograph (EEG) data were collected during the first, while participants continuously subjectively rated the stimuli during the second presentation. Frontal asymmetry (FA) indices from frontal and temporal sites were calculated, and peak periods of bias toward the left (indicating a shift toward positive affect) were identified across the sample. The music pieces were also examined to define the temporal onset of key musical features. Subjective reports of emotional experience averaged across the condition confirmed participants rated their music selection as very positive, the scrambled music as negative, and the neutral music and silence as neither positive nor negative. Significant effects in FA were observed in the frontal electrode pair FC3-FC4, and the greatest increase in left bias from baseline was observed in response to pleasurable music. These results are consistent with findings from previous research. Peak FA responses at this site were also found to co-occur with key musical events relating to change, for instance, the introduction of a new motif, or an instrument change, or a change in low level acoustic factors such as pitch, dynamics or texture. These findings provide empirical support for the proposal that change in basic musical features is a fundamental trigger of emotional responses in listeners.

Exploring the Self through Songwriting: An Analysis of Songs Composed by People with Acquired Neurodisability in an Inpatient Rehabilitation Program.

BACKGROUND: Neurological trauma is associated with significant damage to people's pre-injury self-concept. Therapeutic songwriting has been linked with changes in self-concept and improved psychological well-being. OBJECTIVE: This study analyzed the lyrics of songs composed by inpatients with neurological injuries who participated in a targeted songwriting program. The aim of this study was to understand which of the subdomains of the self-concept were the most frequently expressed in songs. METHODS: An independent, deductive content analysis of 36 songs composed by 12 adults with spinal cord injury or brain injury (11 males, mean age 41 years +/- 13) were undertaken by authors 1 and 2. RESULTS: Deductive analysis indicated that when writing about the past self, people created songs that reflected a strong focus on family and descriptions of their personality. In contrast, there is a clear preoccupation with the physical self, on the personal self, and a tendency for spiritual and moral reflections to emerge during the active phase of rehabilitation (song about the present self). Statistical analyses confirmed a significant self-concept subdomain by song interaction, F(10, 110) = 5.98, p < .001, ηp2 = .35), which was primarily due to an increased focus on physical self-concept and a reduced focus on family self-concept in the present song, more than in either past or future songs. CONCLUSIONS: The analysis process confirmed that songwriting is a vehicle that allows for exploration of self-concept in individuals with neurological impairments. Songwriting may serve as a therapeutic tool to target the most prevalent areas of self-concept challenges for clients undergoing inpatient neurological rehabilitation programs.

Social Networking Sites, Depression, and Anxiety: A Systematic Review.

BACKGROUND: Social networking sites (SNSs) have become a pervasive part of modern culture, which may also affect mental health. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this systematic review was to identify and summarize research examining depression and anxiety in the context of SNSs. It also aimed to identify studies that complement the assessment of mental illness with measures of well-being and examine moderators and mediators that add to the complexity of this environment. METHODS: A multidatabase search was performed. Papers published between January 2005 and June 2016 relevant to mental illness (depression and anxiety only) were extracted and reviewed. RESULTS: Positive interactions, social support, and social connectedness on SNSs were consistently related to lower levels of depression and anxiety, whereas negative interaction and social comparisons on SNSs were related to higher levels of depression and anxiety. SNS use related to less loneliness and greater self-esteem and life satisfaction. Findings were mixed for frequency of SNS use and number of SNS friends. Different patterns in the way individuals with depression and individuals with social anxiety engage with SNSs are beginning to emerge. CONCLUSIONS: The systematic review revealed many mixed findings between depression, anxiety, and SNS use. Methodology has predominantly focused on self-report cross-sectional approaches; future research will benefit from leveraging real-time SNS data over time. The evidence suggests that SNS use correlates with mental illness and well-being; however, whether this effect is beneficial or detrimental depends at least partly on the quality of social factors in the SNS environment. Understanding these relationships will lead to better utilization of SNSs in their potential to positively influence mental health.

Development of a Mobile Phone App to Support Self-Monitoring of Emotional Well-Being: A Mental Health Digital Innovation.

BACKGROUND: Emotional well-being is a primary component of mental health and well-being. Monitoring changes in emotional state daily over extended periods is, however, difficult using traditional methodologies. Providing mental health support is also challenging when approximately only 1 in 2 people with mental health issues seek professional help. Mobile phone technology offers a sustainable means of enhancing self-management of emotional well-being. OBJECTIVE: This paper aims to describe the development of a mobile phone tool designed to monitor emotional changes in a natural everyday context and in real time. METHODS: This evidence-informed mobile phone app monitors emotional mental health and well-being, and it provides links to mental health organization websites and resources. The app obtains data via self-report psychological questionnaires, experience sampling methodology (ESM), and automated behavioral data collection. RESULTS: Feedback from 11 individuals (age range 16-52 years; 4 males, 7 females), who tested the app over 30 days, confirmed via survey and focus group methods that the app was functional and usable. CONCLUSIONS: Recommendations for future researchers and developers of mental health apps to be used for research are also presented. The methodology described in this paper offers a powerful tool for a range of potential mental health research studies and provides a valuable standard against which development of future mental health apps should be considered.

Mental Health Smartphone Apps: Review and Evidence-Based Recommendations for Future Developments.

BACKGROUND: The number of mental health apps (MHapps) developed and now available to smartphone users has increased in recent years. MHapps and other technology-based solutions have the potential to play an important part in the future of mental health care; however, there is no single guide for the development of evidence-based MHapps. Many currently available MHapps lack features that would greatly improve their functionality, or include features that are not optimized. Furthermore, MHapp developers rarely conduct or publish trial-based experimental validation of their apps. Indeed, a previous systematic review revealed a complete lack of trial-based evidence for many of the hundreds of MHapps available. OBJECTIVE: To guide future MHapp development, a set of clear, practical, evidence-based recommendations is presented for MHapp developers to create better, more rigorous apps. METHODS: A literature review was conducted, scrutinizing research across diverse fields, including mental health interventions, preventative health, mobile health, and mobile app design. RESULTS: Sixteen recommendations were formulated. Evidence for each recommendation is discussed, and guidance on how these recommendations might be integrated into the overall design of an MHapp is offered. Each recommendation is rated on the basis of the strength of associated evidence. It is important to design an MHapp using a behavioral plan and interactive framework that encourages the user to engage with the app; thus, it may not be possible to incorporate all 16 recommendations into a single MHapp. CONCLUSIONS: Randomized controlled trials are required to validate future MHapps and the principles upon which they are designed, and to further investigate the recommendations presented in this review. Effective MHapps are required to help prevent mental health problems and to ease the burden on health systems.

Development and feasibility of a mobile experience sampling application for tracking program implementation in youth well-being programs.

Well-being program evaluations mostly focus on identifying effective outcomes rather than measuring the actual extent to which program participants may apply learned skills in subsequent everyday lives. This study examined the feasibility of using a newly developed mobile experience sampling app called Wuzzup to study program implementation in young people participating in well-being programs. Ninety-six participants (60 females; 36 males) between the ages of 13 and 15 years (M = 13.87, SD = 0.71) were recruited to respond to two random prompts each day, for 7 days, at each of the three data collection time-points. Responses from 69 participants (72 % of initial sample) that met study criteria were retained for analysis. The average response rate was 92.89 %, with an average of 85.92 s to complete each ESM survey. Significant associations between first and second halves of the ESM week, and their respective positive affect and negative affect survey responses, demonstrate internal reliability and construct validity of the Wuzzup app to capture momentary affect and activation states of young people. This study also demonstrated the feasibility and practical utility of the Wuzzup app to profile and track an individual's learning over time.

Flow and Meaningfulness as Mechanisms of Change in Self-Concept and Well-Being Following a Songwriting Intervention for People in the Early Phase of Neurorehabilitation.

Anecdotal evidence suggests that songwriting assists people with spinal cord injury (SCI) or acquired brain injury (ABI) to explore threats to self-concept, yet studies that explore the mechanisms of change have not been reported. In a pilot study, we explored the correlations between changes in self-concept and well-being, with mechanisms of flow and meaningfulness of songwriting. Five people with ABI (all male) and 5 SCI (4 males, 1 female) (mean age 38.90 years, SD = 13.21), with an average 3 months post-injury, participated in a 12-session songwriting program that targeted examination of self-concept. Measures of self-concept, depression, anxiety, emotion regulation, affect, satisfaction with life, and flourishing were collected pre-, mid-, and post-intervention, and compared with repeated measures of flow and meaningfulness of songwriting. Medium effects were found for changes in self-concept (d = 0.557) and depression (d = 0.682) and approached a medium effect for negative affect (d = 0.491). Improvements in self-concept over time were associated with decreases in depression (r p = -0.874, n = 9, p < 0.01), anxiety (r p = -0.866, n = 9, p < 0.01), and negative affect (r p = -0.694, n = 10, p < 0.05), and an increase in flourishing (r p = +0.866, n = 9, p < 0.01) and positive affect (r p = + 0.731, n = 10, p < 0.05). Strong experiences of flow were not positively correlated with positive changes to self-concept and well-being, whereas deriving high levels of meaning were associated with increased negative affect (r p = +0.68 p < 0.05), increased anxiety (r p = +0.74, p < 0.05), and reduced emotional suppression (r p = -0.58, p < 0.05). These findings show that the targeted songwriting intervention appears to be positively associated with enhanced well-being outcomes. However, the findings also suggest that people who find the songwriting process has strong meaning for them might be more likely to start accepting their emotions and as a result experience an increase in anxiety and depression, although full, mediated regression analyses with larger sample sizes are required to explore this further. Acknowledging their changed circumstances may nonetheless assist people with SCI and ABI to grieve their losses and facilitate the building of a healthy post-injured self-concept. We propose that there may be other mechanisms more critical in facilitating the positive changes in self-concept and well-being than flow and meaning, such as the role of story-telling and the impact of music in facilitating the consolidation of self-concept explorations in memory.

The role of intracellular calcium stores in synaptic plasticity and memory consolidation.

Memory processing requires tightly controlled signalling cascades, many of which are dependent upon intracellular calcium (Ca(2+)). Despite this, most work investigating calcium signalling in memory formation has focused on plasma membrane channels and extracellular sources of Ca(2+). The intracellular Ca(2+) release channels, ryanodine receptors (RyRs) and inositol (1,4,5)-trisphosphate receptors (IP3Rs) have a significant capacity to regulate intracellular Ca(2+) signalling. Evidence at both cellular and behavioural levels implicates both RyRs and IP3Rs in synaptic plasticity and memory formation. Pharmacobehavioural experiments using young chicks trained on a single-trial discrimination avoidance task have been particularly useful by demonstrating that RyRs and IP3Rs have distinct roles in memory formation. RyR-dependent Ca(2+) release appears to aid the consolidation of labile memory into a persistent long-term memory trace. In contrast, IP3Rs are required during long-term memory. This review discusses various functions for RyRs and IP3Rs in memory processing, including neuro- and glio-transmitter release, dendritic spine remodelling, facilitating vasodilation, and the regulation of gene transcription and dendritic excitability. Altered Ca(2+) release from intracellular stores also has significant implications for neurodegenerative conditions.

Relaxing music counters heightened consolidation of emotional memory.

Emotional events tend to be retained more strongly than other everyday occurrences, a phenomenon partially regulated by the neuromodulatory effects of arousal. Two experiments demonstrated the use of relaxing music as a means of reducing arousal levels, thereby challenging heightened long-term recall of an emotional story. In Experiment 1, participants (N=84) viewed a slideshow, during which they listened to either an emotional or neutral narration, and were exposed to relaxing or no music. Retention was tested 1 week later via a forced choice recognition test. Retention for both the emotional content (Phase 2 of the story) and material presented immediately after the emotional content (Phase 3) was enhanced, when compared with retention for the neutral story. Relaxing music prevented the enhancement for material presented after the emotional content (Phase 3). Experiment 2 (N=159) provided further support to the neuromodulatory effect of music by post-event presentation of both relaxing music and non-relaxing auditory stimuli (arousing music/background sound). Free recall of the story was assessed immediately afterwards and 1 week later. Relaxing music significantly reduced recall of the emotional story (Phase 2). The findings provide further insight into the capacity of relaxing music to attenuate the strength of emotional memory, offering support for the therapeutic use of music for such purposes.

Pharmacobehavioural evidence for nitric oxide and noradrenaline interactions with ryanodine receptors during memory formation in the young chick.

Impairment of nitric oxide (NO) production, ryanodine receptor (RyR) calcium channel function and adrenoceptor activation have been found to prevent the formation of the long-term memory stage in young chicks trained on a single-trial discrimination avoidance task. The current study investigated whether these three activities were linked, and if so, the sequence of activation. Young chicks were trained using either a strongly or weakly reinforced variant of the single-trial discrimination avoidance task, yielding either a persistent or labile memory trace, respectively. Following strongly reinforced training, retention loss induced by a RyR inhibitor was prevented by a NO donor or noradrenaline (NA). A RyR agonist also prevented retention loss induced by either NO synthase or ß1+2-adrenoceptor inhibition. These findings were interpreted to reflect the capacity of NO, RyR-dependent calcium release and NA to modulate memory by preventing retention loss. A second set of studies used weakly reinforced training. Although the administration of a RyR agonist promoted long-term memory formation, this facilitation was compromised in the presence of a ß1+2-adrenoceptor antagonist, but not a NO synthase inhibitor. Similarly, the inhibition of RyRs interfered with the facilitation of retention induced by a NO donor, but not NA. These differential findings with weakly reinforced training suggest that NO facilitates memory formation through mechanisms involving RyR-dependent calcium release. The findings also indicate that RyRs may promote memory formation through noradrenergic activation of ß2-adrenoceptors. This study demonstrates an intricate role for RyRs underlying memory formation.