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1.
Nat Commun ; 13(1): 5746, 2022 09 30.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-36180431

ABSTRACT

Diverse compounds target the Plasmodium falciparum Na+ pump PfATP4, with cipargamin and (+)-SJ733 the most clinically-advanced. In a recent clinical trial for cipargamin, recrudescent parasites emerged, with most having a G358S mutation in PfATP4. Here, we show that PfATP4G358S parasites can withstand micromolar concentrations of cipargamin and (+)-SJ733, while remaining susceptible to antimalarials that do not target PfATP4. The G358S mutation in PfATP4, and the equivalent mutation in Toxoplasma gondii ATP4, decrease the sensitivity of ATP4 to inhibition by cipargamin and (+)-SJ733, thereby protecting parasites from disruption of Na+ regulation. The G358S mutation reduces the affinity of PfATP4 for Na+ and is associated with an increase in the parasite's resting cytosolic [Na+]. However, no defect in parasite growth or transmissibility is observed. Our findings suggest that PfATP4 inhibitors in clinical development should be tested against PfATP4G358S parasites, and that their combination with unrelated antimalarials may mitigate against resistance development.


Subject(s)
Antimalarials , Malaria, Falciparum , Antimalarials/pharmacology , Antimalarials/therapeutic use , Calcium-Transporting ATPases , Erythrocytes/parasitology , Humans , Indoles , Ions , Malaria, Falciparum/drug therapy , Malaria, Falciparum/parasitology , Mutation , Plasmodium falciparum , Sodium , Spiro Compounds
2.
Nat Commun ; 13(1): 5326, 2022 09 10.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-36088375

ABSTRACT

Trypanosomatids, which include major pathogens of humans and livestock, are flagellated protozoa for which cell cycle controls and the underlying mechanisms are not completely understood. Here, we describe a genome-wide RNA-interference library screen for cell cycle defects in Trypanosoma brucei. We induced massive parallel knockdown, sorted the perturbed population using high-throughput flow cytometry, deep-sequenced RNAi-targets from each stage and digitally reconstructed cell cycle profiles at a genomic scale; also enabling data visualisation using an online tool ( https://tryp-cycle.pages.dev/ ). Analysis of several hundred genes that impact cell cycle progression reveals >100 flagellar component knockdowns linked to genome endoreduplication, evidence for metabolic control of the G1-S transition, surface antigen regulatory mRNA-binding protein knockdowns linked to G2M accumulation, and a putative nucleoredoxin required for both mitochondrial genome segregation and for mitosis. The outputs provide comprehensive functional genomic evidence for the known and novel machineries, pathways and regulators that coordinate trypanosome cell cycle progression.


Subject(s)
Trypanosoma brucei brucei , Cell Cycle/genetics , Genome , Humans , Mitosis , RNA Interference , Trypanosoma brucei brucei/metabolism
3.
Nucleic Acids Res ; 50(14): e79, 2022 08 12.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-35524555

ABSTRACT

Trypanosomatids cause the neglected tropical diseases, sleeping sickness, Chagas disease and the leishmaniases. Studies on these lethal parasites would be further facilitated by new and improved genetic technologies. Scalable precision editing methods, for example, could be used to improve our understanding of potential mutations associated with drug resistance, a current priority given that several new anti-trypanosomal drugs, with known targets, are currently in clinical development. We report the development of a simple oligo targeting method for rapid and precise editing of priority drug targets in otherwise wild type trypanosomatids. In Trypanosoma brucei, approx. 50-b single-stranded oligodeoxynucleotides were optimal, multiple base edits could be incorporated, and editing efficiency was substantially increased when mismatch repair was suppressed. Resistance-associated edits were introduced in T. brucei cyclin dependent kinase 12 (CRK12, L482F) or cleavage and polyadenylation specificity factor 3 (N232H), in the Trypanosoma cruzi proteasome ß5 subunit (G208S), or in Leishmania donovani CRK12 (G572D). We further implemented oligo targeting for site saturation mutagenesis, targeting codon G492 in T. brucei CRK12. This approach, combined with amplicon sequencing for codon variant scoring, revealed fourteen resistance conferring G492 edits encoding six distinct amino acids. The outputs confirm on-target drug activity, reveal a variety of resistance-associated mutations, and facilitate rapid assessment of potential impacts on drug efficacy.


Subject(s)
Parasites , Trypanosoma brucei brucei , Trypanosoma cruzi , Animals , Codon/metabolism , Drug Resistance/genetics , Mutation , Parasites/genetics , Trypanosoma brucei brucei/genetics , Trypanosoma brucei brucei/metabolism , Trypanosoma cruzi/genetics
4.
mSphere ; 7(2): e0006922, 2022 04 27.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-35306877

ABSTRACT

Variant surface glycoproteins (VSGs) coat parasitic African trypanosomes and underpin antigenic variation and immune evasion. These VSGs are superabundant virulence factors that are subject to posttranscriptional gene expression controls mediated via the VSG 3' untranslated region (UTR). To identify positive VSG regulators in bloodstream-form Trypanosoma brucei, we used genome-scale screening data to prioritize mRNA binding protein (mRBP) knockdowns that phenocopy VSG mRNA knockdown, displaying loss of fitness and precytokinesis accumulation. The top three candidates were CFB2 (cyclin F-box protein 2) (Tb927.1.4650), MKT1 (Tb927.6.4770), and PBP1 (polyadenylate binding protein 1) (Tb927.8.4540). Notably, CFB2 was recently found to regulate VSG transcript stability, and all three proteins were found to associate. We used data-independent acquisition for accurate label-free quantification and deep proteome coverage to quantify the expression profiles following the depletion of each mRBP. Only CFB2 knockdown significantly reduced VSG expression and the expression of a reporter under the control of the VSG 3' UTR. CFB2 knockdown also triggered the depletion of cytoplasmic ribosomal proteins, consistent with translation arrest observed when VSG synthesis is blocked. In contrast, PBP1 knockdown triggered the depletion of CFB2, MKT1, and other components of the PBP1 complex. Finally, all three knockdowns triggered the depletion of cytokinesis initiation factors, consistent with a cytokinesis defect, which was confirmed here for all three knockdowns. Thus, genome-scale knockdown data sets facilitate the triage and prioritization of candidate regulators. Quantitative proteomic analysis confirms the 3'-UTR-dependent positive control of VSG expression by CFB2 and interactions with additional mRBPs. Our results also reveal new insights into the connections between VSG expression control by CFB2, ribosomal protein expression, and cytokinesis. IMPORTANCE VSG expression represents a key parasite virulence mechanism and an example of extreme biology. Posttranscriptional gene expression controls in trypanosomatids also continue to be the subject of substantial research interest. We have identified three candidate VSG regulators and used knockdown and quantitative proteomics, in combination with other approaches, to assess their function. CFB2 is found to control VSG expression via the VSG 3' untranslated region, while other data support the view that MKT1 and PBP1 also form part of a CFB2 mRNA binding complex. Remarkably, we also find the depletion of cytoplasmic ribosomal proteins upon CFB2 knockdown, consistent with translation arrest observed when VSG synthesis is blocked. Proteomic profiles following knockdown further yield insights into cytokinesis defects. Taken together, our findings confirm and elaborate the role of CFB2 in controlling VSG expression and reveal new insights into connectivity with translation and cytokinesis controls.


Subject(s)
Trypanosoma brucei brucei , 3' Untranslated Regions , Cytokinesis , Membrane Glycoproteins/genetics , Proteomics , RNA, Messenger/metabolism , Ribosomal Proteins/genetics , Trypanosoma brucei brucei/physiology
5.
J Cell Sci ; 135(5)2022 03 01.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-34881783

ABSTRACT

Male and female Plasmodium falciparum gametocytes are the parasite lifecycle stage responsible for transmission of malaria from the human host to the mosquito vector. Not only are gametocytes able to survive in radically different host environments, but they are also precursors for male and female gametes that reproduce sexually soon after ingestion by the mosquito. Here, we investigate the sex-specific lipid metabolism of gametocytes within their host red blood cell. Comparison of the male and female lipidome identifies cholesteryl esters and dihydrosphingomyelin enrichment in female gametocytes. Chemical inhibition of each of these lipid types in mature gametocytes suggests dihydrosphingomyelin synthesis but not cholesteryl ester synthesis is important for gametocyte viability. Genetic disruption of each of the two sphingomyelin synthase genes points towards sphingomyelin synthesis contributing to gametocytogenesis. This study shows that gametocytes are distinct from asexual stages, and that the lipid composition is also vastly different between male and female gametocytes, reflecting the different cellular roles these stages play. Taken together, our results highlight the sex-specific nature of gametocyte lipid metabolism, which has the potential to be targeted to block malaria transmission. This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.


Subject(s)
Malaria, Falciparum , Plasmodium falciparum , Animals , Female , Humans , Life Cycle Stages/physiology , Lipid Metabolism , Male , Mosquito Vectors , Plasmodium falciparum/metabolism , Sphingomyelins/metabolism
6.
Bio Protoc ; 11(11): e4045, 2021 Jun 05.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-34250211

ABSTRACT

Plasmodium falciparum is a unicellular eukaryotic parasite that causes malaria in humans. The parasite is spread by Anopheles mosquitoes after ingestion of sexual stage parasites known as gametocytes. Malaria transmission depends on parasites switching from the disease-causing asexual blood forms to male and female gametocytes. The current protocol allows the simultaneous isolation of male and female parasites from the same population to study this critical lifecycle stage in a sex-specific manner. We have generated a transgenic P. falciparum cell line that expresses a GFP-tagged parasite protein in female, but not male, parasites. Gametocyte production is stress induced and, through a series of steps, sexual stage parasites are enriched relative to uninfected red blood cells or red blood cells infected with asexual stage parasites. Finally, male and female gametocytes are separated by fluorescence-activated cell sorting. This protocol allows for the separation of up to 12 million live male and female parasites from the same population, which are amenable to further analysis.

7.
mSphere ; 5(4)2020 08 12.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-32817458

ABSTRACT

We developed a flow-cytometry-based method to separate and collect cocultured male and female Plasmodium falciparum gametocytes responsible for malaria transmission. The purity of the collected cells was estimated at >97% using flow cytometry, and sorted cells were observed by Giemsa-stained thin-smear and live-cell fluorescence microscopy. The expression of validated sex-specific markers corroborated the sorting strategy. Collected male and female gametocytes were used to confirm three novel sex-specific markers by quantitative real-time PCR that were more enriched in sorted male and female gametocyte populations than existing sex-specific markers. We also applied the method as a proof-of-principle drug screen that allows the identification of drugs that kill gametocytes in a sex-specific manner. Since the developed method allowed for the separation of male and female parasites from the same culture, we observed for the first time a difference in development time between the sexes: females developed faster than males. Hence, the ability to separate male and female gametocytes opens the door to a new field of sex-specific P. falciparum gametocyte biology to further our understanding of malaria transmission.IMPORTANCE The protozoan Plasmodium falciparum causes the most severe form of human malaria. The development of sexual forms (so-called gametocytes) is crucial for disease transmission. However, knowledge of these forms is severely hampered by the paucity of sex-specific markers and the inability to extract single sex gametocytes in high purity. Moreover, the identification of compounds that specifically affect one sex is difficult due to the female bias of the gametocytes. We have developed a system that allows for the separation of male and female gametocytes from the same population. Applying our system, we show that male and female parasites mature at different rates, which might have implications for transmission. We also identified new sex-specific genes that can be used as sex markers or to unravel sex-specific functions. Our system will not only aid in the discovery of much needed gametocidal compounds, but it also represents a valuable tool for exploring malaria transmission biology.


Subject(s)
Antimalarials/pharmacology , Flow Cytometry/methods , Plasmodium falciparum/isolation & purification , Drug Discovery , Erythrocytes/parasitology , Germ Cells/drug effects , Germ Cells/physiology , Humans , Microscopy, Fluorescence , Plasmodium falciparum/drug effects , Plasmodium falciparum/physiology , Protozoan Proteins/genetics
8.
Int J Parasitol ; 50(6-7): 511-522, 2020 06.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-32445722

ABSTRACT

Parasites of the genus Plasmodium infect a wide range of mammalian hosts including humans, primates, bats and arboreal rodents. A hallmark of Plasmodium spp. is the very narrow host range, indicative of matching parasite-host coevolution. Accordingly, their respective genomes harbour many unique genes and gene families that typically encode proteins involved in host cell recognition and remodelling. Whether and to what extent conserved proteins that are shared across Plasmodium spp. also exert distinct species-specific roles remains largely untested. Here, we present detailed functional profiling of the female gametocyte-specific ATP-binding cassette transporter gABCG2 in the murine parasite Plasmodium berghei and compare our findings with data from the orthologous gene in the human parasite Plasmodium falciparum. We show that P. berghei gABCG2 is female-specific and continues to be expressed in zygotes and ookinetes. In contrast to a distinct localization to Iipid-rich gametocyte-specific spots as observed in P. falciparum, the murine malaria parasite homolog is found at the parasite plasma membrane. Plasmodium berghei lacking gABCG2 displays fast asexual blood-stage replication and increased proportions of female gametocytes, consistent with the corresponding P. falciparum knock-out phenotype. Strikingly, cross-species replacement of gABCG2 in either the murine or the human parasite did not restore normal growth rates. The lack of successful complementation despite high conservation across Plasmodium spp. is an indicator of distinct adaptations and tight parasite-host coevolution. Hence, incompatibility of conserved genes in closely related Plasmodium spp. might be more common than previously anticipated.


Subject(s)
ATP-Binding Cassette Transporters/genetics , Plasmodium berghei/genetics , Plasmodium falciparum/genetics , Protozoan Proteins/genetics , Animals , Female , Humans , Malaria, Falciparum , Mice
9.
J Biol Chem ; 293(34): 13327-13337, 2018 08 24.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-29986883

ABSTRACT

The antimalarial activity of chemically diverse compounds, including the clinical candidate cipargamin, has been linked to the ATPase PfATP4 in the malaria-causing parasite Plasmodium falciparum The characterization of PfATP4 has been hampered by the inability thus far to achieve its functional expression in a heterologous system. Here, we optimized a membrane ATPase assay to probe the function of PfATP4 and its chemical sensitivity. We found that cipargamin inhibited the Na+-dependent ATPase activity present in P. falciparum membranes from WT parasites and that its potency was reduced in cipargamin-resistant PfATP4-mutant parasites. The cipargamin-sensitive fraction of membrane ATPase activity was inhibited by all 28 of the compounds in the "Malaria Box" shown previously to disrupt ion regulation in P. falciparum in a cipargamin-like manner. This is consistent with PfATP4 being the direct target of these compounds. Characterization of the cipargamin-sensitive ATPase activity yielded data consistent with PfATP4 being a Na+ transporter that is sensitive to physiologically relevant perturbations of pH, but not of [K+] or [Ca2+]. With an apparent Km for ATP of 0.2 mm and an apparent Km for Na+ of 16-17 mm, the protein is predicted to operate at below its half-maximal rate under normal physiological conditions, allowing the rate of Na+ efflux to increase in response to an increase in cytosolic [Na+]. In membranes from a cipargamin-resistant PfATP4-mutant line, the apparent Km for Na+ is slightly elevated. Our study provides new insights into the biochemical properties and chemical sensitivity of an important new antimalarial drug target.


Subject(s)
Adenosine Triphosphatases/antagonists & inhibitors , Antimalarials/pharmacology , Calcium-Transporting ATPases/antagonists & inhibitors , Cation Transport Proteins/antagonists & inhibitors , Erythrocytes/enzymology , Malaria, Falciparum/enzymology , Plasmodium falciparum/enzymology , Sodium/metabolism , Adenosine Triphosphatases/genetics , Animals , Calcium-Transporting ATPases/genetics , Cation Transport Proteins/genetics , Erythrocytes/drug effects , Erythrocytes/parasitology , Homeostasis , Humans , Ion Transport , Malaria, Falciparum/drug therapy , Malaria, Falciparum/parasitology , Plasmodium falciparum/drug effects , Plasmodium falciparum/genetics , Protozoan Proteins/antagonists & inhibitors , Protozoan Proteins/genetics
10.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-29555632

ABSTRACT

For an increasing number of antimalarial agents identified in high-throughput phenotypic screens, there is evidence that they target PfATP4, a putative Na+ efflux transporter on the plasma membrane of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum For several such "PfATP4-associated" compounds, it has been noted that their addition to parasitized erythrocytes results in cell swelling. Here we show that six structurally diverse PfATP4-associated compounds, including the clinical candidate KAE609 (cipargamin), induce swelling of both isolated blood-stage parasites and intact parasitized erythrocytes. The swelling of isolated parasites is dependent on the presence of Na+ in the external environment and may be attributed to the osmotic consequences of Na+ uptake. The swelling of the parasitized erythrocyte results in an increase in its osmotic fragility. Countering cell swelling by increasing the osmolarity of the extracellular medium reduces the antiplasmodial efficacy of PfATP4-associated compounds, consistent with cell swelling playing a role in the antimalarial activity of this class of compounds.


Subject(s)
Antimalarials/pharmacology , Biological Transport, Active/drug effects , Cell Size/drug effects , Indoles/pharmacology , Malaria, Falciparum/drug therapy , Membrane Transport Proteins/drug effects , Plasmodium falciparum/drug effects , Plasmodium falciparum/growth & development , Spiro Compounds/pharmacology , Erythrocytes/parasitology , Humans , Osmotic Fragility/drug effects
11.
Int J Parasitol Drugs Drug Resist ; 6(3): 179-183, 2016 12.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-27705841

ABSTRACT

Ketotifen has recently been reported to inhibit the growth of both asexual and sexual malaria parasites. A parasite transporter, PfgABCG2, has been implicated in its mechanism of action. Human dihydrofolate reductase (hDHFR) is the most commonly used selectable marker to create transgenic Plasmodium falciparum cell lines. Growth assays using transgenic P. falciparum parasites with different selectable markers revealed that the presence of hDHFR rather than the absence of PfgABCG2 is responsible for a shift in the parasite's sensitivity to ketotifen. Employing a range of in vitro assays and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry we show that ketotifen influences hDHFR activity, but it is not metabolised by the enzyme. Our data also highlights potential pitfalls when functionally characterising transgenic parasites.


Subject(s)
Antimalarials/pharmacology , Ketotifen/pharmacology , Plasmodium falciparum/drug effects , Tetrahydrofolate Dehydrogenase/metabolism , Drug Evaluation, Preclinical , Gene Expression , Humans , Parasitic Sensitivity Tests , Plasmodium falciparum/enzymology , Plasmodium falciparum/genetics , Recombinant Proteins/genetics , Recombinant Proteins/metabolism , Tetrahydrofolate Dehydrogenase/genetics
12.
Malar J ; 15: 73, 2016 Feb 06.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-26852399

ABSTRACT

BACKGROUND: The development of differentiated sexual stages (gametocytes) within human red blood cells is essential for the propagation of the malaria parasite, since only mature gametocytes will survive in the mosquito's midgut. Hence gametocytogenesis is a pre-requisite for transmission of the disease. Physiological changes involved in sexual differentiation are still enigmatic. In particular the lipid metabolism-despite being central to cellular regulation and development-is not well explored. METHODS: Here the lipid profiles of red blood cells infected with the five different sexual stages of Plasmodium falciparum were analysed by mass spectrometry and compared to those from uninfected and asexual trophozoite infected erythrocytes. RESULTS: Fundamental differences between erythrocytes infected with the different parasite stages were revealed. In mature gametocytes many lipids that decrease in the trophozoite and early gametocyte infected red blood cells are regained. In particular, regulators of membrane fluidity, cholesterol and sphingomyelin, increased significantly during gametocyte maturation. Neutral lipids (serving mainly as caloriometric reserves) increased from 3 % of total lipids in uninfected to 27 % in stage V gametocyte infected red blood cells. The major membrane lipid class (phospholipids) decreased during gametocyte development. CONCLUSIONS: The lipid profiles of infected erythrocytes are characteristic for the particular parasite life cycle and maturity stages of gametocytes. The obtained lipid profiles are crucial in revealing the lipid metabolism of malaria parasites and identifying targets to interfere with this deadly disease.


Subject(s)
Lipids/analysis , Plasmodium falciparum/growth & development , Plasmodium falciparum/metabolism , Animals , Erythrocytes/parasitology , Humans , Plasmodium falciparum/physiology , Protozoan Proteins/metabolism
13.
Mol Microbiol ; 94(2): 327-39, 2014 Oct.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-25145582

ABSTRACT

The antimalarial spiroindolones disrupt Plasmodium falciparum Na(+) regulation and induce an alkalinization of the parasite cytosol. It has been proposed that they do so by inhibiting PfATP4, a parasite plasma membrane P-type ATPase postulated to export Na(+) and import H(+) equivalents. Here, we screened the 400 antiplasmodial compounds of the open access 'Malaria Box' for their effects on parasite ion regulation. Twenty eight compounds affected parasite Na(+) and pH regulation in a manner consistent with PfATP4 inhibition. Six of these, with chemically diverse structures, were selected for further analysis. All six showed reduced antiplasmodial activity against spiroindolone-resistant parasites carrying mutations in pfatp4. We exposed parasites to incrementally increasing concentrations of two of the six compounds and in both cases obtained resistant parasites with mutations in pfatp4. The finding that diverse chemotypes have an apparently similar mechanism of action indicates that PfATP4 may be a significant Achilles' heel for the parasite.


Subject(s)
Antimalarials/pharmacology , Homeostasis , Hydrogen/metabolism , Ions/metabolism , Plasmodium falciparum/drug effects , Plasmodium falciparum/metabolism , Sodium/metabolism , Adenosine Triphosphatases/antagonists & inhibitors , Drug Resistance , Hydrogen-Ion Concentration , Plasmodium falciparum/enzymology
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