ABSTRACT
Swimming is one of the most popular sports worldwide. Competitive swimming is one of the most watched sports during the Olympic Games. Swimming has unique medical challenges as a result of a variety of environmental and chemical exposures. Musculoskeletal overuse injuries, overtraining, respiratory problems, and dermatologic conditions are among the most common problems swimmers encounter. Although not unique to swimming, overtraining is a serious condition which can have significant negative impact on swimmers' health and performance. This review article is an attempt to discuss various issues that a medical team should consider when caring for swimmers.
ABSTRACT
BACKGROUND: Tennis requires repetitive multidirectional movement patterns that can lead to lower extremity injury. Knowledge of population and age-specific strength parameters can be used during performance enhancement training and rehabilitation of tennis players. OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to generate population and age-specific descriptive profiles of concentric isokinetic knee extension and flexion strength in elite junior tennis players, and determine whether bilateral differences exist between extremities and across age ranges. METHODS: A total of 103 elite male tennis players (mean (SD) 15.92 (2.14), range 11-21) and 53 female tennis players (mean (SD) 15.0 (2.30, range 11-21) were isokinetically tested on a Cybex 6000 isokinetic dynamometer at 180 and 300 degrees/s to assess bilateral concentric knee extension and flexion strength using a standard bilateral testing protocol. RESULTS: No significant bilateral difference between the dominant (racquet side) lower extremity and the contralateral non-dominant side were measured in lower extremity knee extension or flexion strength normalised to body weight, or in the hamstring quadriceps strength ratios in male and female subjects. Male subjects did show significant (p<0.001) increases in knee extension and flexion strength across the age ranges from 11-15 years of age to 16-21 years. Female subjects did not show any significant change in the normalised knee extension or flexion strength across age ranges. Hamstring/quadriceps strength ratios were bilaterally symmetric and remained clinically and statistically constant across age ranges for the male and female elite tennis players. CONCLUSIONS: Population and age-specific isokinetic descriptive data from elite tennis players can provide guidance in the development and monitoring of performance enhancement and rehabilitation programs for elite tennis players. The changes identified in normalised knee extension and flexion strength in elite male tennis players necessitate the use of population and age-specific descriptive data.
Subject(s)
Athletic Performance/physiology , Knee Joint/physiology , Muscle, Skeletal/physiology , Tennis/physiology , Adolescent , Adult , Age Factors , Child , Female , Humans , Isometric Contraction/physiology , Knee/physiology , Male , Muscle Strength/physiologyABSTRACT
The motions of lower-limb extension, adduction, and internal rotation are frequently coupled in persons with cerebral palsy (CP) and are commonly referred to as an extension synergy. However, the underlying joint moments that give rise to these coupled motions are not well understood. We hypothesized that maximal voluntary exertions in a direction of one component of a synergy (e.g., hip extension) would result in the concurrent presence of other components of the synergy in subjects with CP but not in control subjects. To test this hypothesis, we measured three-dimensional moments about the hip and knee as nine subjects with spastic CP and six control subjects performed maximal isometric exertions of the hip and knee flexors and extensors. During maximal hip extension exertions, control subjects simultaneously generated a knee flexion moment, whereas CP subjects generated a knee extension moment (P < 0.05) and a larger hip internal rotation moment than did controls (P < 0.05). During maximal knee extension exertions, control subjects generated a hip flexion moment, whereas CP subjects generated a hip extension moment (P < 0.05). The patterns of joint moments generated by CP subjects are consistent with an extension synergy and may underlie the coupled motion patterns of the lower extremity in such persons.
Subject(s)
Cerebral Palsy/physiopathology , Gait Disorders, Neurologic/etiology , Gait Disorders, Neurologic/physiopathology , Movement Disorders/etiology , Movement Disorders/physiopathology , Muscle Contraction/physiology , Muscle, Skeletal/physiopathology , Adolescent , Adult , Electromyography , Female , Hip Joint/physiology , Humans , Isometric Contraction/physiology , Knee Joint/physiology , Male , Muscle, Skeletal/innervation , Range of Motion, Articular/physiologyABSTRACT
Propulsive forces generated by swimmers' hands and arms have, to date, been determined strictly through experimental testing. As an alternative to these complex and costly experiments, the present research has applied the numerical technique of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) to calculate the steady flow around a swimmer's hand and arm at various angles of attack. Force coefficients computed for the hand and arm compared well with steady-state coefficients determined experimentally. The simulations showed significant boundary layer separation from the arm and hand, suggesting that Bernoulli's equation should not be used to mathematically describe the lift generated by a swimmer. Additionally, "2D" lift was shown to be inaccurate for the arm at all angles of attack and for the hand near angles of attack of 90 degrees. Such simulations serve to validate the chosen CFD techniques, and are an important first step towards the use of CFD methods for determining swimming hydrodynamic forces in more complex unsteady flow conditions.
