Childhood correlates and young adult outcomes of trajectories of emotional problems from childhood to adolescence.

BACKGROUND: Emotional problems, especially anxiety, have become increasingly common in recent generations. Few population-based studies have examined trajectories of emotional problems from early childhood to late adolescence or investigated differences in psychiatric and functional outcomes. METHODS: Using the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC, n = 8286, 50.4% male), we modeled latent class growth trajectories of emotional problems, using the parent-reported Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire emotional scale (SDQ-E) on seven occasions (4-17 years). Psychiatric outcomes in young adulthood (21-25 years) were major depressive disorder (MDD), generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), and self-harm. Functional outcomes were exam attainment, educational/occupational status, and social relationship quality. RESULTS: We identified four classes of emotional problems: low (67.0%), decreasing (18.4%), increasing (8.9%), and persistent (5.7%) problems. Compared to those in the low class, individuals with decreasing emotional problems were not at elevated risk of any poor adult outcome. Individuals in the increasing and persistent classes had a greater risk of adult MDD (RR: 1.59 95% CI 1.13-2.26 and RR: 2.25 95% CI 1.49-3.41) and self-harm (RR: 2.37 95% CI 1.91-2.94 and RR: 1.87 95% CI 1.41-2.48), and of impairment in functional domains. Childhood sleep difficulties, irritability, conduct and neurodevelopmental problems, and family adversity were associated with a persistent course of emotional problems. CONCLUSIONS: Childhood emotional problems were common, but those whose symptoms improved over time were not at increased risk for adverse adult outcomes. In contrast, individuals with persistent or adolescent-increasing emotional problems had a higher risk of mental ill-health and social impairment in young adulthood which was especially pronounced for those with persistent emotional problems.

Adolescent and adult differences in major depression symptom profiles.

BACKGROUND: Depression is the leading global cause of disability and often begins in adolescence. The genetic architecture and treatment response profiles for adults and adolescents differ even though identical criteria are used to diagnose depression across different age groups. There is no clear consensus on how these groups differ in their symptom profiles. METHODS: Using data from a two-generation family study, we compared the presentation of DSM-IV depressive symptoms in adolescents and adults with MDD (Major Depressive Disorder). We also compared DSM-IV depressive symptom counts using latent class analysis. RESULTS: Vegetative symptoms (appetite and weight change, loss of energy and insomnia) were more common in adolescent MDD than adult MDD. Anhedonia/loss of interest and concentration problems were more common in adults with MDD. When using latent class analysis to look at depressive symptoms, a vegetative symptom profile was also seen in adolescent depression only. LIMITATIONS: Adults and adolescents were recruited in different ways. Adolescent cases were more likely to be first-onset while adult cases were recurrences. It was not possible to examine how recurrence affected adolescent depression symptom profiles. CONCLUSION: Differences in how depression presents in adolescents and adults may be consistent with different pathophysiological mechanisms. For adolescents, we found that vegetative/physical disturbances were common (loss of energy, changes in weight, appetite and sleep changes). For adults, anhedonia/loss of interest and concentration difficulties were more common.

Investigating the genetic underpinnings of early-life irritability.

Severe irritability is one of the commonest reasons prompting referral to mental health services. It is frequently seen in neurodevelopmental disorders that manifest early in development, especially attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). However, irritability can also be conceptualized as a mood problem because of its links with anxiety/depressive disorders; notably DSM-5 currently classifies severe, childhood-onset irritability as a mood disorder. Investigations into the genetic nature of irritability are lacking although twin studies suggest it shares genetic risks with both ADHD and depression. We investigated the genetic underpinnings of irritability using a molecular genetic approach, testing the hypothesis that early irritability (in childhood/adolescence) is associated with genetic risk for ADHD, as indexed by polygenic risk scores (PRS). As a secondary aim we investigated associations between irritability and PRS for major depressive disorder (MDD). Three UK samples were utilized: two longitudinal population-based cohorts with irritability data from childhood (7 years) to adolescence (15-16 years), and one ADHD patient sample (6-18 years). Irritability was defined using parent reports. PRS were derived from large genome-wide association meta-analyses. We observed associations between ADHD PRS and early irritability in our clinical ADHD sample and one of the population samples. This suggests that early irritability traits share genetic risk with ADHD in the general population and are a marker of higher genetic loading in individuals with an ADHD diagnosis. Associations with MDD PRS were not observed. This suggests that early-onset irritability could be conceptualized as a neurodevelopmental difficulty, behaving more like disorders such as ADHD than mood disorders.

Exploring the longitudinal association between interventions to support the transition to secondary school and child anxiety.

School transition at around 11-years of age can be anxiety-provoking for children, particularly those with special educational needs (SEN). The present study adopted a longitudinal design to consider how existing transition strategies, categorized into cognitive, behavioral or systemic approaches, were associated with post-transition anxiety amongst 532 typically developing children and 89 children with SEN. Multiple regression analysis indicated that amongst typically developing pupils, systemic interventions were associated with lower school anxiety but not generalized anxiety, when controlling for prior anxiety. Results for children with SEN differed significantly, as illustrated by a Group × Intervention type interaction. Specifically, systemic strategies were associated with lower school anxiety amongst typically developing children and higher school anxiety amongst children with SEN. These findings highlight strategies that schools may find useful in supporting typically developing children over the transition period, whilst suggesting that children with SEN might need a more personalized approach.