ABSTRACT
The amyloid-beta (Abeta) peptide, which likely plays a key role in Alzheimer disease, is derived from the amyloid-beta precursor protein (APP) through consecutive proteolytic cleavages by beta-site APP-cleaving enzyme and gamma-secretase. Unexpectedly gamma-secretase inhibitors can increase the secretion of Abeta peptides under some circumstances. This "Abeta rise" phenomenon, the same inhibitor causing an increase in Abeta at low concentrations but inhibition at higher concentrations, has been widely observed. Here we show that the Abeta rise depends on the beta-secretase-derived C-terminal fragment of APP (betaCTF) or C99 levels with low levels causing rises. In contrast, the N-terminally truncated form of Abeta, known as "p3," formed by alpha-secretase cleavage, did not exhibit a rise. In addition to the Abeta rise, low betaCTF or C99 expression decreased gamma-secretase inhibitor potency. This "potency shift" may be explained by the relatively high enzyme to substrate ratio under conditions of low substrate because increased concentrations of inhibitor would be necessary to affect substrate turnover. Consistent with this hypothesis, gamma-secretase inhibitor radioligand occupancy studies showed that a high level of occupancy was correlated with inhibition of Abeta under conditions of low substrate expression. The Abeta rise was also observed in rat brain after dosing with the gamma-secretase inhibitor BMS-299897. The Abeta rise and potency shift are therefore relevant factors in the development of gamma-secretase inhibitors and can be evaluated using appropriate choices of animal and cell culture models. Hypothetical mechanisms for the Abeta rise, including the "incomplete processing" and endocytic models, are discussed.
Subject(s)
Amyloid Precursor Protein Secretases/metabolism , Amyloid beta-Peptides/metabolism , Gene Expression Regulation, Enzymologic , Animals , Brain/metabolism , Butyrates/pharmacology , Cell Line , Enzyme Inhibitors/pharmacology , Female , Humans , Hydrocarbons, Halogenated/pharmacology , Mice , Protein Binding , Protein Structure, Tertiary , Rats , Substrate SpecificityABSTRACT
We report the synthesis of benzoazepine-derived cyclic malonamides (2) and aminoamides (3) as gamma-secretase inhibitors for the potential treatment of Alzheimer's disease. The in vitro structure-activity relationships of 2 and 3 along with dog pharmacokinetic results are described.
Subject(s)
Amides/pharmacology , Amyloid Precursor Protein Secretases/antagonists & inhibitors , Azepines/chemistry , Azepines/pharmacology , Azepines/chemical synthesis , Cyclization , Models, Molecular , Structure-Activity RelationshipABSTRACT
The synthesis, evaluation, and structure-activity relationships of a series of succinoyl lactam inhibitors of the Alzheimer's disease gamma-secretase are described. Beginning with a screening hit with broad proteinase activity, optimization provided compounds with both high selectivity for inhibition of gamma-secretase and high potency in cellular assays of A beta reduction. The SAR and early in vivo properties of this series of inhibitors will be presented.
Subject(s)
Caprolactam/chemistry , Endopeptidases/drug effects , Enzyme Inhibitors/chemical synthesis , Enzyme Inhibitors/pharmacology , Succinates/chemistry , Alzheimer Disease/drug therapy , Alzheimer Disease/enzymology , Amyloid Precursor Protein Secretases , Animals , Aspartic Acid Endopeptidases , Caprolactam/analogs & derivatives , Cell Line , Dogs , Drug Design , Drug Evaluation, Preclinical , Endopeptidases/chemistry , Enzyme Inhibitors/chemistry , Humans , Molecular Conformation , Stereoisomerism , Structure-Activity RelationshipABSTRACT
The mammalian Bin1/Amphiphysin II gene encodes an assortment of alternatively spliced adapter proteins that exhibit markedly divergent expression and subcellular localization profiles. Bin1 proteins have been implicated in a variety of different cellular processes, including endocytosis, actin cytoskeletal organization, transcription, and stress responses. To gain insight into the physiological functions of the Bin1 gene, we have disrupted it by homologous recombination in the mouse. Bin1 loss had no discernible impact on either endocytosis or phagocytosis in mouse embryo-derived fibroblasts and macrophages, respectively. Similarly, actin cytoskeletal organization, proliferation, and apoptosis in embryo fibroblasts were all unaffected by Bin1 loss. In vivo, however, Bin1 loss resulted in perinatal lethality. Bin1 has been reported to affect muscle cell differentiation and T-tubule formation. No striking histological abnormalities were evident in skeletal muscle of Bin1 null embryos, but severe ventricular cardiomyopathy was observed in these embryos. Ultrastructurally, myofibrils in ventricular cardiomyocytes of Bin1 null embryos were severely disorganized. These results define a developmentally critical role for the Bin1 gene in cardiac muscle development.
Subject(s)
Adaptor Proteins, Signal Transducing , Carrier Proteins/genetics , Endocytosis , Muscles/cytology , Nerve Tissue Proteins , Nuclear Proteins/genetics , Tumor Suppressor Proteins/genetics , Actins/metabolism , Animals , Apoptosis , Blotting, Western , Cardiomyopathies/pathology , Cell Division , Cell Line , Culture Media, Serum-Free/pharmacology , Cytoskeleton/metabolism , Fibroblasts/metabolism , Immunohistochemistry , Macrophages , Mice , Models, Genetic , Muscle, Skeletal/cytology , Muscle, Skeletal/ultrastructure , Muscles/metabolism , Muscles/ultrastructure , Mutagenesis, Site-Directed , Phagocytosis , Polymerase Chain Reaction , Protein Isoforms , Protein Structure, Tertiary , Time FactorsABSTRACT
Presenilin (PS) proteins control the proteolytic cleavage that precedes nuclear access of the Notch intracellular domain. Here we observe that a partial activation of the HES1 promoter can be detected in PS1/PS2 (PS1/2) double null cells using Notch1 Delta E constructs or following Delta 1 stimulation, despite an apparent abolition of the production and nuclear accumulation of the Notch intracellular domain. PS1/2-independent Notch activation is sensitive to Numblike, a physiological inhibitor of Notch. PS1/2-independent Notch signaling is also inhibited by an active gamma-secretase inhibitor in the low micromolar range and is not inhibited by an inactive analogue, similar to PS-dependent Notch signaling. However, experiments using a Notch1-Gal4-VP16 fusion protein indicate that the PS1/2-independent activity does not release Gal4-VP16 and is therefore unlikely to proceed via an intramembranous cleavage. These data reveal that a novel PS1/2-independent mechanism plays a partial role in Notch signal transduction.
