OCEANOGRAPHY. Contrasting futures for ocean and society from different anthropogenic CO2 emissions scenarios.

The ocean moderates anthropogenic climate change at the cost of profound alterations of its physics, chemistry, ecology, and services. Here, we evaluate and compare the risks of impacts on marine and coastal ecosystems­and the goods and services they provide­for growing cumulative carbon emissions under two contrasting emissions scenarios. The current emissions trajectory would rapidly and significantly alter many ecosystems and the associated services on which humans heavily depend. A reduced emissions scenario­consistent with the Copenhagen Accord's goal of a global temperature increase of less than 2°C­is much more favorable to the ocean but still substantially alters important marine ecosystems and associated goods and services. The management options to address ocean impacts narrow as the ocean warms and acidifies. Consequently, any new climate regime that fails to minimize ocean impacts would be incomplete and inadequate.

Factors influencing disease phenotype and penetrance in HFE haemochromatosis.

Haemochromatosis is predominantly associated with the HFE p.C282Y homozygous genotype, which is present in approximately 1 in 200 people of Northern European origin. However, not all p.C282Y homozygotes develop clinical features of haemochromatosis, and not all p.C282Y homozygotes even present abnormal iron parameters justifying venesection therapy. This situation was not apparent from initial genotype/phenotype correlation studies as there was a selection bias of patients. Only those patients with a significant iron burden were included in these early studies. It is now largely accepted that the p.C282Y/p.C282Y genotype is necessary for the development of HFE haemochromatosis. However, this genotype provides few clues as to why certain symptoms are associated with the disease. Expression of iron overload in people with this genotype depends on the complex interplay of environmental factors and modifier genes. In this review, we restrict our discussion to work done in humans giving examples of animal models where this has helped clarify our understanding. We discuss penetrance, explaining that this concept normally does not apply to autosomal recessive disorders, and discuss the usefulness of different biochemical markers in ascertaining iron burden. Hepcidin, a peptide synthesized primarily by the liver, has been identified as the central regulator in iron homeostasis. Consequently, understanding its regulation is the key. We conclude that the main goal now is to identify important modifiers that have a significant and unambiguous effect on iron storage.

Genetics of infantile seizures with paroxysmal dyskinesia: the infantile convulsions and choreoathetosis (ICCA) and ICCA-related syndromes.

The relationship between paroxysmal movement disorders (PD: paroxysmal dyskinesia) and epilepsy continues to present a challenging problem. Attacks of PD and epileptic seizures have several characteristics in common: both are paroxysmal in nature with a tendency to spontaneous remission, and a subset of PD responds well to anticonvulsants. In 1997, description of the ICCA (infantile convulsions and choreoathetosis) syndrome and linkage to chromosome 16p12-q12 provided the first genetic evidence for common mechanisms shared by benign infantile seizures and PD. The chromosome 16 ICCA locus is by far the most frequently involved in such associations as well as in pure forms of benign infantile seizures. The ICCA region at the pericentromeric area of chromosome 16 shows complicated genomic architecture and the ICCA gene still remains unknown. Genetic studies focusing on PD with or without epilepsy have led to the identification of other genes linked to chromosomes 2q35 and 10q22. Alterations of ion channel and ion pump subunits could provide a simple, albeit probably non-unique, explanation for the pathophysiology of the link between epilepsy and PD. The aim of this review is to update genetic aspects of infantile epileptic seizures and PD and their association in the context of ICCA and ICCA related syndromes.

[Molecular basis in hereditary haemochromatosis]. / Bases moléculaires des hémochromatoses génétiques.

PURPOSE: Recent discoveries in molecular mechanisms of iron metabolism have changed the classical view of hereditary iron overload conditions. We present natural mutations in newly discovered genes and related phenotypes observed in patients with different form of haemochromatosis. CURRENT KNOWLEDGE AND KEY POINTS: Most haemochromatosis patients are homozygous for the C282Y mutation in the HFE gene. Ferroportin, TFR2, hemojuvelin and hepcidin mutations also cause iron overload. Recent data support the hypothesis that haemochromatosis should no longer be considered a monogenic disease but rather an oligogenic disorder. Several results suggest that haemochromatosis could result from digenic inheritance of mutations in HFE and HAMP. FUTURE PROSPECTS AND PROJECTS: Other modifier genes probably influence penetrance in C282Y homozygous patients. Such genes could enhance or reduce the phenotypic expression in various iron overload conditions.

Reverse cascade screening of newborns for hereditary haemochromatosis: a model for other late onset diseases?

BACKGROUND: Genetic testing can determine those at risk for hereditary haemochromatosis (HH) caused by HFE mutations before the onset of symptoms. However, there is no optimum screening strategy, mainly owing to the variable penetrance in those who are homozygous for the HFE Cys282Tyr (C282Y) mutation. The objective of this study was to identify the majority of individuals at serious risk of developing HFE haemochromatosis before they developed life threatening complications. METHODS: We first estimated the therapeutic penetrance of the C282Y mutation in people living in la Somme, France, using genetic, demographic, biochemical, and follow up data. We examined the benefits of neonatal screening on the basis of increased risk to relatives of newborns carrying one or two copies of the C282Y mutation. Between 1999 and 2002, we screened 7038 newborns from two maternity hospitals in the north of France for the C282Y and His63Asp (H63D) mutations in the HFE gene, using bloodspots collected on Guthrie cards. Family studies and genetic counselling were undertaken, based on the results of the baby's genotype. FINDINGS: In la Somme, we found that 24% of the adults homozygous for the C282Y mutation required at least 5 g iron to be removed to restore normal iron parameters (that is, the therapeutic penetrance). In the reverse cascade screening study, we identified 19 C282Y homozygotes (1/370), 491 heterozygotes (1/14) and 166 compound heterozygotes (1/42) in 7038 newborns tested. The reverse cascade screening strategy resulted in 80 adults being screened for both mutations. We identified 10 previously unknown C282Y homozygotes of whom six (four men and two women) required venesection. Acceptance of neonatal screening was high; parents understood the risks of having HH and the benefits of early detection, but a number of parents were reluctant to take the test themselves. Neonatal screening for HH is straightforward. Reverse cascade screening increased the efficiency of detecting affected adults with undiagnosed haemochromatosis. This strategy allows almost complete coverage for HH and could be a model for efficient screening for other late onset genetic diseases.

[Advances in iron metabolism: a transition state]. / Données récentes sur le métabolisme du fer: un état de transition.

PURPOSE: Advances towards the understanding of gene regulation and protein function recently discovered through iron metabolism disorders are the subject of this review. CURRENT KNOWLEDGE AND KEY POINTS: Within a few years the discovery of genes that determine heritable defects of cellular iron uptake or regulation in mice as in humans have provided new insights for investigation into iron metabolism pathways. FUTURE PROSPECTS AND PROJECTS: It is still unclear how connections are made between new proteins in iron uptake, trafficking and regulation of iron homeostasis. Gene expression studies using microarrays technology in different iron conditions should help to explore iron homeostasis further.

A mediatorless biosensor for putrescine using multiwalled carbon nanotubes.

Poly(diallyldimethylammonium) chloride, having a capability of dispersing multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), permits the modification of electrode surfaces. Together with putrescine oxidase, a MWCNT modified glassy carbon electrode was constructed for the development of a mediatorless putrescine biosensor. Nanoscale "dendrites" of MWCNTs were reasoned to form a network, projecting outward from the electrode surface acting like bundled ultra-microelectrodes, thereby permitting access to the active site and facilitating direct electron transfer to the immobilized enzyme. Our biosensor was capable of efficiently monitoring the direct electroactivity of putrescine oxidase at the electrode surface. Direct electron transfer permits the detection of putrescine at negative potentials, circumventing the interference of endogenous ascorbic and uric acids, which often complicate the analysis of important compounds in plasma. Compared with the most common interfering species, such as spermine, spermidine, cadaverine, and histamine, a detection limit of 5 microM and a response 20 times greater were found for putrescine. Tests performed on plasma of cancerous mice demonstrated that the detection of putrescine could be carried out very quickly on mammalian plasma without previous purification.

Recent advances in understanding haemochromatosis: a transition state.

Mutations in the hepcidin gene HAMP and the hemojuvelin gene HJV have recently been shown to result in juvenile haemochromatosis (JH). Hepcidin is an antimicrobial peptide that plays a key role in regulating intestinal iron absorption. Hepcidin levels are reduced in patients with haemochromatosis due to mutations in the HFE and HJV genes. Digenic inheritance of mutations in HFE and HAMP can result in either JH or hereditary haemochromatosis (HH) depending upon the severity of the mutation in HAMP. Here we review these findings and discuss how understanding the different types of haemochromatosis and our increasing knowledge of iron metabolism may help to elucidate the host's response to infection.

Development of H1e histone linker-specific antibodies by means of synthetic peptides.

A large body of data suggests that the linker histones family (H1) affects gene expression. Investigation of the linker histones role is then of a major interest in cell cycle studies with implications in gene therapy. Indeed, it has been shown that in most tissues a switch of histone subtypes occurs when the cells cease to divide. To investigate linker histone role in gene or transgene expression, an antibody against subtypes of H1 would be useful for immunoprecipitation experiments and further assays measuring H1subtypes-DNA interactions in living cells. In order to produce an antibody against the H1e subtype of linker histones, two synthetic peptides derived from two regions of the H1e mouse histone protein were examined for their potential, [as keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH) conjugates] to elicit polyclonal anti-H1e antibodies in New Zealand white rabbits. Selection of the peptide sequences was based on amino acid differences within the different classes of histones and between mice and rabbit histones as well. The evaluation of their potential immunogenic properties was based on examination of peptide hydropathy using predicting algorithms. Immunoglobulins (IgG) obtained from immunized and nonimmunized rabbits were tested using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) procedures, Western immunoblot, and immunofluorescence experiments. Results showed that the selected synthetic peptides gave rise to a high-titer polyclonal antibody able to recognize the H1e histone under various conditions. This polyclonal antibody did not cross-react with other histones. To our knowledge, this is the first antibody produced against the mouse H1e linker histone.

The 16189 variant of mitochondrial DNA occurs more frequently in C282Y homozygotes with haemochromatosis than those without iron loading.

BACKGROUND: Patients with hereditary haemochromatosis (HH) are usually homozygous for the C282Y mutation in the HFE gene. They have variable expression of iron overload and present with a variety of complications, including liver disease, diabetes, arthropathy, fatigue, and cardiomyopathy. The mitochondrial 16189 variant is associated with diabetes, dilated cardiomyopathy, and low body fat at birth, and might contribute to genetic predisposition in further multifactorial disorders. The objective of this study was to determine the frequency of the 16189 variant in a range of patients with haemochromatosis, who had mutations in the HFE gene. METHODS: Blood DNA was analysed for the presence of the 16189 variant in British, French, and Australian C282Y homozygotes and controls, with known iron status, and in birth cohorts. RESULTS: The frequency of the mitochondrial 16189 variant was found to be elevated in individuals with haemochromatosis who were homozygous for the C282Y allele, compared with population controls and with C282Y homozygotes who were asymptomatic (42/292 (14.4%); 102/1186 (8.6%) (p = 0.003); and 2/64 (3.1%) (p = 0.023), respectively). CONCLUSIONS: Iron loading in C282Y homozygotes with HH was exacerbated by the presence of the mitochondrial 16189 variant.

A targeted approach significantly increases the identification rate of patients with undiagnosed haemochromatosis.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the optimal means of identifying patients with undiagnosed haemochromatosis. DESIGN: Case-control study where cases are defined by the presence of specific clinical diagnoses or symptoms. SETTING: Primary care patients were recruited from three Oxfordshire practices and secondary care patients were recruited from those patients attending specialist clinics in Amiens University Hospital. SUBJECTS: A total of 569 patients recruited via hospital clinics and 60 primary care patients (recruited from 4022 consultations) presenting with the following haemochromatosis associated conditions, diabetes, arthralgia/chronic fatigue, osteoporosis or arthropathy were studied. The control group, a total of 991 healthy volunteers, were recruited through a Health Appraisal Centre. Patients and controls were included in the study if they or their family members had not previously been diagnosed with hereditary haemochromatosis. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Serum ferritin concentration, transferrin saturation (Tsat) and presence of HFE mutations, C282Y and H63D. The check-up in controls consisted of a questionnaire, clinical examination, biochemical tests and screening for the presence of the C282Y and H63D mutations. RESULTS: Patient groups presenting with unstable diabetes or chronic fatigue and arthralgia together with a raised serum ferritin concentration showed an enrichment in the haemochromatosis-associated genotype HH/YY, odds ratio (OR) = 40.1, confidence interval (CI) = 8.0-202.1 and OR = 103, CI = 22.9-469.7, respectively. CONCLUSION: Patients presenting to hospital clinics with haemochromatosis associated conditions should be screened biochemically for iron overload. Only those with a serum ferritin >300 microg L-1 or Tsat >40% should subsequently go on to be genotyped for HFE mutations. The patients at greatest risk of having undiagnosed haemochromatosis are those presenting with unstable diabetes, or fatigue and/or arthralgia in the absence of any other explanation.

Linkage of benign familial infantile convulsions to chromosome 16p12-q12 suggests allelism to the infantile convulsions and choreoathetosis syndrome.

The syndrome of benign familial infantile convulsions (BFIC) is an autosomal dominant epileptic disorder that is characterized by convulsions, with onset at age 3-12 mo and a favorable outcome. BFIC had been linked to chromosome 19q, whereas the infantile convulsions and choreoathetosis (ICCA) syndrome, in which BFIC is associated with paroxysmal dyskinesias, had been linked to chromosome 16p12-q12. BFIC appears to be frequently associated with paroxysmal dyskinesias, because many additional families from diverse ethnic backgrounds have similar syndromes that have been linked to the chromosome 16 ICCA region. Moreover, one large pedigree with paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesias only, has also been linked to the same genomic area. This raised the possibility that families with pure BFIC may be linked to chromosome 16 as well. We identified and studied seven families with BFIC inherited as an autosomal dominant trait. Genotyping was performed with markers at chromosome 19q and 16p12-q12. Although chromosome 19q could be excluded, evidence for linkage in the ICCA region was found, with a maximum two-point LOD score of 3.32 for markers D16S3131 and SPN. This result proves that human chromosome 16p12-q12 is a major genetic locus underlying both BFIC and paroxysmal dyskinesias. The unusual phenotype displayed by one homozygous patient suggests that variability of the ICCA syndrome could be sustained by genetic modifiers.

A 3-dimensional model building by homology of the HFE protein: molecular consequences and application to antibody development.

Genetic hemochromatosis (GH) is a common inherited disease of iron metabolism affecting 2-5 in 1000 individuals of European origin. A candidate gene for GH, namely HFE has been recently characterized. Structural studies of the protein product of the HFE gene are of major interest for a better understanding of the molecular physiopathology in iron overload. We have built a 3-dimensional model of the HFE protein based on congruent with40% homology of sequence identity with HLA-Aw68, another MHC class I molecule. This work presents the first 3-dimensional structure of HFE available in the public domain (http://swift.embl-heidelberg.de/service/francois). The 3-dimensional characteristics of the protein complexed with the beta2-microglobulin are presented. The model has been used to predict immunogenic loops and to develop an antibody able to recognize a protein exhibiting the same molecular weight as HFE. Structural consequences of two common mutations are debated and evolutionary hypotheses are considered in the discussion of the particular biological activity of HFE. This study shows that a strategy based on homology modeling is sufficient to undertake biological investigations.

Geography of HFE C282Y and H63D mutations.

Hereditary hemochromatosis (HH) is a common autosomal recessive disorder causing inappropriate dietary iron absorption that affects North Europeans. HH is associated with the C282Y mutation of the HFE gene, and the H63D mutation to a lesser degree. Both mutations are abundant in Europe, with H63D also appearing in North Africa, the Middle East, and Asia. Emigration from Europe over the past 500 years has introduced C282Y and H63D to America, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa in an essentially predictable fashion. The distinctive characteristics of the population genetics of HH are the confined racial distribution and high frequency in North European peoples. C282Y frequencies in North Europeans are typically between 5% and 10%, with homozygotes accounting for between 1/100 and 1/400 of these populations. The scarcity of the C282Y mutation in other populations accounts for the lack of HH in non-Europeans.

An integrated map of human 6q22.3-q24 including a 3-Mb high-resolution BAC/PAC contig encompassing a QTL for fetal hemoglobin.

Genetic studies have previously assigned a quantitative trait locus (QTL) for hemoglobin F and F cells to a region of approximately 4 Mb between the markers D6S408 and D6S292 on chromosome 6q23. An initial yeast artificial chromosome contig of 13 clones spanning this region was generated. Further linkage analysis of an extended kindred refined the candidate interval to 1-2 cM, and key recombination events now place the QTL within a region of <800 kb. We describe a high-resolution bacterial clone contig spanning 3 Mb covering this critical region. The map consists of 223 bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) and 100 P1 artificial chromosome (PAC) clones ordered by sequence-tagged site (STS) content and restriction fragment fingerprinting with a minimum tiling path of 22 BACs and 1 PAC. A total of 194 STSs map to this interval of 3 Mb, giving an average marker resolution of approximately one per 15 kb. About half of the markers were novel and were isolated in the present study, including three CA repeats and 13 single nucleotide polymorphisms. Altogether 24 expressed sequence tags, 6 of which are unique genes, have been mapped to the contig.

Born to clot: the European burden.

Venous thrombosis is a common problem, predominantly afflicting people of European origin. This European predisposition has been explained to some extent by the recent characterization of factor V Leiden, and the G20210A prothrombin variant. Although it is clear that factor V Leiden is largely confined to Europeans, the world distribution of the prothrombin variant is not known. We have analysed samples from 22 different non-European countries and shown that this prothrombin variant is very rare outside Europe: one case occurring in India. The reason for the confined distribution of these two mutations is unclear.