Estimación de la carga global de enfermedad en Colombia 2012: nuevos aspectos metodológicos / Estimation of the global burden of disease in Colombia-2012: new methodological aspects

RESUMEN La nueva metodología de carga global de enfermedad (GBD, 2010) resulta difícil de reproducir completamente en Colombia. En este trabajo se presentan los resultados de utilización parcial de esta metodología para estimar los años perdidos por muerte prematura (APMP) y los vividos con discapacidad (AVD). La redistribución de códigos inútiles produce incrementos importantes en las causas de muerte, que es preferible a un análisis de causas de muerte con un 15,6 % de códigos inútiles que aportarían poca o ninguna información estadística. La cardiopatía isquémica, eventos cerebrovasculares y la cardiopatía hipertensiva causan el mayor riesgo de mortalidad (164,2 muertes por 100 000). Las agresiones por arma de fuego y objeto cortante, las lesiones auto-infligidas y las provocadas por vehículos de tres y cuatro ruedas, causan el mayor riesgo de APMP (34,3 APMP por 1000). Enfermedades de piel como la dermatitis, eritemas, la pediculosis y la pitiriasis, causan el mayor riesgo de AVD (51,3 AVD por 1000). Este grupo de enfermedades de la piel también resultan la principal causa de AVISAs Totales (51,4 AVISAs Totales por 1000). Los departamentos con las tasas más elevadas de mortalidad y APMP para las causas del grupo I (enfermedades transmisibles) son Guainía, Amazonas, Vaupés, Cauca, Vichada, Putumayo, Nariño, Chocó, Córdoba, La Guajira, Guaviare y Caquetá, que están entre los de más baja cobertura de la mortalidad.(AU)

ABSTRACT The new methodology applying for burden of disease study (GBD 2010) is difficult to completely reproduce in Colombia. This paper presents the results of partial use of this methodology to estimate the components years lost due to premature death (YLLs) and lived with disability (YLDs). Redistribution of useless codes produces significant increases in some causes of death, which are preferable to deal with an analysis of causes of death with 15,6 % of useless codes that would provide little or no statistical information. Ischemic heart disease, cerebrovascular and hypertensive heart disease events cause the highest risk of mortality rate (164,2 per 100,000). Assaults by firearms and sharp objects, self-inflicted injuries and those caused by motorcycles and four-wheeled vehicles on the road, are the first cause of YLLs per 1000 (34,3). Skin diseases such as dermatitis, erythemas, burns on exposure to sunlight, pediculosis and pityriasis, cause the greatest risk of YLDs per 1000 (51,3). This group of skin diseases are also the leading cause of DALYs per 1000 (51,4). The departments with the highest rates of mortality and YLLs for Group I (communicable diseases) are Guainía, Amazonas, Vaupés, Cauca, Vichada, Putumayo, Nariño, Chocó, Cordoba, La Guajira, Guaviare y Caquetá and with the lower mortality coverage.(AU)

[Estimation of the global burden of disease in Colombia-2012: new methodological aspects]. / Estimación de la carga global de enfermedad en Colombia 2012: nuevos aspectos metodológicos.

The new methodology applying for burden of disease study (GBD 2010) is difficult to completely reproduce in Colombia. This paper presents the results of partial use of this methodology to estimate the components years lost due to premature death (YLLs) and lived with disability (YLDs). Redistribution of useless codes produces significant increases in some causes of death, which are preferable to deal with an analysis of causes of death with 15,6 % of useless codes that would provide little or no statistical information. Ischemic heart disease, cerebrovascular and hypertensive heart disease events cause the highest risk of mortality rate (164,2 per 100,000). Assaults by firearms and sharp objects, self-inflicted injuries and those caused by motorcycles and four-wheeled vehicles on the road, are the first cause of YLLs per 1000 (34,3). Skin diseases such as dermatitis, erythemas, burns on exposure to sunlight, pediculosis and pityriasis, cause the greatest risk of YLDs per 1000 (51,3). This group of skin diseases are also the leading cause of DALYs per 1000 (51,4). The departments with the highest rates of mortality and YLLs for Group I (communicable diseases) are Guainía, Amazonas, Vaupés, Cauca, Vichada, Putumayo, Nariño, Chocó, Cordoba, La Guajira, Guaviare y Caquetá and with the lower mortality coverage.

La nueva metodología de carga global de enfermedad (GBD, 2010) resulta difícil de reproducir completamente en Colombia. En este trabajo se presentan los resultados de utilización parcial de esta metodología para estimar los años perdidos por muerte prematura (APMP) y los vividos con discapacidad (AVD). La redistribución de códigos inútiles produce incrementos importantes en las causas de muerte, que es preferible a un análisis de causas de muerte con un 15,6 % de códigos inútiles que aportarían poca o ninguna información estadística. La cardiopatía isquémica, eventos cerebrovasculares y la cardiopatía hipertensiva causan el mayor riesgo de mortalidad (164,2 muertes por 100 000). Las agresiones por arma de fuego y objeto cortante, las lesiones auto-infligidas y las provocadas por vehículos de tres y cuatro ruedas, causan el mayor riesgo de APMP (34,3 APMP por 1000). Enfermedades de piel como la dermatitis, eritemas, la pediculosis y la pitiriasis, causan el mayor riesgo de AVD (51,3 AVD por 1000). Este grupo de enfermedades de la piel también resultan la principal causa de AVISAs Totales (51,4 AVISAs Totales por 1000). Los departamentos con las tasas más elevadas de mortalidad y APMP para las causas del grupo I (enfermedades transmisibles) son Guainía, Amazonas, Vaupés, Cauca, Vichada, Putumayo, Nariño, Chocó, Córdoba, La Guajira, Guaviare y Caquetá, que están entre los de más baja cobertura de la mortalidad.

Estimulación auriculoventricular secuencial en pacientes con miocardiopatía hipertrófica: 18 años de experiencia / Sequential atrioventricular pacing in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: An 18-year experience

Introducción y objetivos: El papel de la estimulación auriculoventricular secuencial en pacientes con miocardiopatía hipertrófica obstructiva y síntomas incapacitantes sigue siendo controvertido. El objetivo de este trabajo es valorar su efecto en los síntomas, el gradiente dinámico y la función del ventrículo izquierdo. Métodos: Desde 1991 a 2009, se implantó un marcapasos bicameral a 82 pacientes con miocardiopatía hipertrófica obstructiva y síntomas incapacitantes a pesar de tratamiento médico óptimo. Se programó una estimulación secuencial con un intervalo auriculoventricular corto. Se analizaron parámetros clínicos y ecocardiográficos antes, inmediatamente tras el implante y al final de un largo seguimiento (mediana, 8,5 [1-18] años). Resultados: La clase funcional de la New York Heart Association se redujo inmediatamente tras el implante en el 95% de los pacientes (p < 0,0001), y esta mejoría se mantenía al final del seguimiento en el 89% (p = 0,016). Se observó una reducción significativa del gradiente tras el implante (94,5 ± 36,5 frente a 46,4 ± 26,7 mmHg; p < 0,0001) y al final del seguimiento (94,5 ± 36,5 frente a 35,9 ± 24,0 mmHg; p < 0,0001). La insuficiencia mitral mejoró de manera constante en el 52% de los casos (p < 0,0001). No hubo diferencias en el grosor o los diámetros ventriculares, la fracción de eyección o la función diastólica. Conclusiones: La estimulación secuencial en pacientes seleccionados con miocardiopatía hipertrófica obstructiva mejora la clase funcional y reduce el gradiente dinámico y la insuficiencia mitral inmediatamente tras el implante y al final de un largo seguimiento. La estimulación ventricular prolongada no produce efectos deletéreos en la función ventricular sistólica o diastólica en estos pacientes (AU)

Introduction and objectives: Controversy persists regarding the role of sequential atrioventricular pacing in patients with obstructive hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and disabling symptoms. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of pacing on symptoms, dynamic gradient, and left ventricular function in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Methods: From 1991 to 2009, dual-chamber pacemakers were implanted in 82 patients with obstructive hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and disabling symptoms despite optimal medical therapy. Sequential pacing was performed with a short atrioventricular delay. Clinical and echocardiographic parameters were measured before and immediately after implantation and after a long follow-up (median, 8.5 years [range, 1-18 years]). Results: The New York Heart Association functional class was immediately reduced after pacemaker implantation in 95% of patients (P < .0001), and this improvement was maintained until the final follow-up in 89% (P = .016). The gradient was significantly reduced after implantation (94.5 ± 36.5 vs 46.4 ± 26.7 mmHg; P < .0001) and at final follow-up (94.5 ± 36.5 vs 35.9 ± 24.0 mmHg; P < .0001). Mitral regurgitation permanently improved in 52% of the patients (P < .0001). There were no differences in ventricular thickness or diameters, ejection fraction, or diastolic function. Conclusions: Sequential pacing in selected patients with obstructive hypertrophic cardiomyopathy improves functional class and reduces dynamic gradient and mitral regurgitation immediately after pacemaker implantation and at final follow-up. Prolonged ventricular pacing has no negative effects on systolic or diastolic function in these patients (AU)

Sequential Atrioventricular Pacing in Patients With Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy: An 18-year Experience.

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES: Controversy persists regarding the role of sequential atrioventricular pacing in patients with obstructive hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and disabling symptoms. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of pacing on symptoms, dynamic gradient, and left ventricular function in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. METHODS: From 1991 to 2009, dual-chamber pacemakers were implanted in 82 patients with obstructive hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and disabling symptoms despite optimal medical therapy. Sequential pacing was performed with a short atrioventricular delay. Clinical and echocardiographic parameters were measured before and immediately after implantation and after a long follow-up (median, 8.5 years [range, 1-18 years]). RESULTS: The New York Heart Association functional class was immediately reduced after pacemaker implantation in 95% of patients (P < .0001), and this improvement was maintained until the final follow-up in 89% (P = .016). The gradient was significantly reduced after implantation (94.5 ± 36.5 vs 46.4 ± 26.7mmHg; P < .0001) and at final follow-up (94.5 ± 36.5 vs 35.9 ± 24.0mmHg; P < .0001). Mitral regurgitation permanently improved in 52% of the patients (P < .0001). There were no differences in ventricular thickness or diameters, ejection fraction, or diastolic function. CONCLUSIONS: Sequential pacing in selected patients with obstructive hypertrophic cardiomyopathy improves functional class and reduces dynamic gradient and mitral regurgitation immediately after pacemaker implantation and at final follow-up. Prolonged ventricular pacing has no negative effects on systolic or diastolic function in these patients.

The public health impact of economic fluctuations in a Latin American country: mortality and the business cycle in Colombia in the period 1980-2010.

INTRODUCTION: Studies in high-income countries suggest that mortality is related to economic cycles, but few studies have examined how fluctuations in the economy influence mortality in low- and middle-income countries. We exploit regional variations in gross domestic product per capita (GDPpc) over the period 1980-2010 in Colombia to examine how changes in economic output relate to adult mortality. METHODS: Data on the number of annual deaths at ages 20 years and older (n = 3,506,600) from mortality registries, disaggregated by age groups, sex and region, were linked to population counts for the period 1980-2010. We used region fixed effect models to examine whether changes in regional GDPpc were associated with changes in mortality. We carried out separate analyses for the periods 1980-1995 and 2000-2010 as well as by sex, distinguishing three age groups: 20-44 (predominantly young working adults), 45-64 (middle aged working adults), and 65+ (senior, predominantly retired individuals). RESULTS: The association between regional economic conditions and mortality varied by period and age groups. From 1980 to 1995, increases in GDPpc were unrelated to mortality at ages 20 to 64, but they were associated with reductions in mortality for senior men. In contrast, from 2000 to 2010, changes in GDPpc were not associated with old age mortality, while an increase in GDPpc was associated with a decline in mortality at ages 20-44 years. Analyses restricted to regions with high registration coverage yielded similar albeit less precise estimates for most sub-groups. CONCLUSIONS: The relationship between business cycles and mortality varied by period and age in Colombia. Most notably, mortality shifted from being acyclical to being countercyclical for males aged 20-44, while it shifted from being countercyclical to being acyclical for males aged 65+.

La carga de la enfermedad en países de América Latina

Objetivo. Describir los estudios de carga de la enfermedad realizados en la región e identificar las principales prioridades en salud a partir del indicador años de vida saludable perdidos (AVISA). Material y métodos. Mediante el uso de AVISA, identificar la carga de enfermedad en los distintos países. Resultados. Los AVISA destacan la emergencia de los trastornos mentales, la diabetes mellitus en las mujeres y los trastornos por consumo de alcohol y lesiones en los hombres. conclusiones. América Latina es la región con más estudios nacionales de carga de la enfermedad realizados con una metodología estandarizada, que permiten identificar problemas de salud que están presionando a los servicios de atención; por ello estos resultados constituyen un elemento a tomar en cuenta en el establecimiento de políticas públicas en cada país.

[The burden of disease for cancer in Santander, Colombia, 2005]. / Carga de enfermedad por cáncer en Santander, Colombia, 2005.

OBJECTIVES: Determining the burden of cancer in Santander using disability adjusted life years (DALY). METHODS: This was a descriptive study of the disease burden for determining DALYs caused by cancer in Santander. The unit of analysis consisted of the Autonomous University of Bucaramanga- Population-Based Cancer Centre records and National Bureau of Statistics- mortality records for 2005. RESULTS: The global burden of disease for Santander was estimated at 877 DALY per hundred thousand people, 50 being due to disability and 827 to premature death. It was seen that premature death DALY (94 %) greatly outweighed disability DALY (6 %). The highest DALY values due to premature death in men were related to cancer of the stomach (169.8), leukaemia (106.8), colon and the rectum (100.4), lymphomas and multiple myelomas (89.9), whilst the highest values in women were observed in cervical (122.4), breast (121.9) and stomach cancer (94.2) and leukaemia (86.0). The types and cancer sites related to more years of life lost (YLL) were the colon and rectum (11.3), breast (6.2), liver (6.05) and cervical cancer (5.43). CONCLUSIONS: The burden of disease from cancer in Santander in 2005 was mainly due to premature death YLL in both sexes and all age-groups.

[Burden of disease in Latin America]. / La carga de la enfermedad en países de América Latina.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the burden of disease studies made in the region, identify the main priorities in health from the indicator Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs). MATERIAL AND METHODS: By the use of DALYs identify the burden of disease in the countries in the network. RESULTS: DALYs emphasize the emergency of mental disorders, diabetes mellitus in women and the disorders associated with alcohol consumption and injuries in men. CONCLUSIONS: Latin America is the region with more national studies of burden of disease, using a standardized methodology, that allows identifying new health priorities which are pressing to the health services; for that reason these results constitute an element to take into account in the establishment of public policies in each country.

Factores asociados a la inequidad en la vacunación infantil en Colombia: identificando alternativas de intervención / Fatores associados à desigualdade na vacinação infantil na Colômbia: identificando alternativas de intervenção / Inequity-related aspects for the vaccination of children in Colombia: identifying intervention alternatives

Para aportar elementos analíticos a los tomadores de decisiones se analizaron los factores asociados a las inequidades en la vacunación infantil, a través del análisis de las brechas o diferenciasde cobertura municipal en relación con el nivel nacional, mediante un estudio ecológico que empleó un análisis de regresión múltiple que incluyó tanto variables territoriales, como del sistema de salud. Se asociaron con el aumento de las brechas de cobertura la ruralidad, el tamaño funcional municipal, y la mayor densidad de población infantil. A su vez, disminuyen estas diferencias la afiliación subsidiada al Sistema de Salud y los recursos per cápita destinadosa salud pública. Se concluye que el esfuerzo debería centrarse en municipios con mayor desigualdad, menor urbanización y recursos.

In order to provide decision-makers with analytical elements, inequity-related aspects of vaccinationof children were evaluated, through an analysis of the gaps or differences in coverage levels in municipalities compared to the national level. The study was ecological and included a multiple regression analysis which included variables related to both territory and the health system.Bigger differences were found to be related to rural areas, the size of municipalities and higher density of children in the population. Smaller gaps were found to be connected to subsidizedaffiliation to the Health System and per capita investments in public health. As a conclusion, the authors recommend to concentrate spending in municipalities with high inequity, little urban development and little resources.

Para contribuir com elementos analíticos aos tomadores de decisões se analisaram os fatores associados às inequidades na vacinação infantil, através da análise das brechas ou diferenças de cobertura municipal em relação com o nível nacional, mediante um estudo ecológico que empregou uma análise de regressão múltipla que incluiu tanto variáveis territoriais, comodo sistema de saúde. Foram associados com o aumento das brechas de cobertura rural, o tamanho funcional municipal, e a maior densidade de população infantil. A sua vez, diminuemestas diferenças a afiliação subsidiada ao Sistema de Saúde e os recursos per capita destinados à saúde pública. Conclui-se que o esforço deveria concentrar-se em municípios com maiordesigualdade, menor urbanização e recursos.

Carga de enfermedad por cáncer en Santander, Colombia, 2005 / The burden of disease for cancer in Santander, Colombia, 2005

Objetivo Determinar la carga de la enfermedad por cáncer en Santander a través de los años de vida ajustados por discapacidad (AVISA). Métodos Estudio descriptivo de carga de la enfermedad para determinar los AVISA producidos por Cáncer en Santander. La unidad de análisis fueron los registros del Observatorio Poblacional de Cáncer de la Universidad Autónoma de Bucaramanga y el registro de mortalidad del Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadísticas del año 2005. Resultados La carga global de enfermedad para Santander se estimó en 877 AVISA totales por cada cien mil personas, de los cuales 50 eran debido a discapacidad y 827 a muerte prematura. Se evidencia que los AVISA por muerte prematura superan ampliamente a los AVISA por discapacidad, 94 % versus 6 % respectivamente. En hombres los mayores valores de AVISAS por muerte prematura fueron estómago (169,8), leucemias (106,8), colon y recto (100,4), linfomas y mielomas múltiples (89,9). Mientras que en las mujeres los mayores valores se observaron en cérvico uterino (122,4), mama (121,9), estómago (94,2) y leucemias (86,0). Los tipos y las localizaciones de cáncer con más AVD fueron: colon y recto (11,3), mama (6,2), hígado (6,05) y cérvico uterino (5,43). Conclusiones La carga de enfermedad por cáncer en Santander durante el año 2005 se debe principalmentea los años de vida perdidos por muerte prematura en ambos sexos y para todoslos grupos de edades.

Objectives Determining the burden of cancer in Santander using disability adjusted life years (DALY). Methods This was a descriptive study of the disease burden for determining DALYs caused by cancer in Santander. The unit of analysis consisted of the Autonomous University of Bucaramanga- Population-Based Cancer Centre records and National Bureau of Statistics- mortality records for 2005. Results The global burden of disease for Santander was estimated at 877 DALY per hundred thousand people, 50 being due to disability and 827 to premature death. It was seen that premature death DALY (94 %) greatly outweighed disability DALY (6 %). The highest DALY values due to premature death in men were related to cancer of the stomach (169.8), leukaemia (106.8), colon and the rectum (100.4), lymphomas and multiple myelomas (89.9), whilst the highest values in women were observed in cervical (122.4), breast (121.9) and stomach cancer (94.2) and leukaemia (86.0). The types and cancer sites related to more years of life lost (YLL) were the colon and rectum (11.3), breast (6.2), liver (6.05) and cervical cancer (5.43). Conclusions The burden of disease from cancer in Santander in 2005 was mainly due to premature death YLL in both sexes and all age-groups.

Carga de la enfermedad en afiliados al instituto Mexicano del seguro social (IMSS): asociación con indicadores socioeconómicos: México 2000 / Carga da doença nos filiados ao instituto mexicano do seguro social (IMSS): associação com indicadores socioeconômicos: México 2000 / Burden of disease in Mexican social insurance institute affiliated: relation with socioeconomic indicators México 2000

Se estimó la carga de enfermedad en el IMSS en el año 2000. Resultados: similitud con subregión AMRO A y Australia en primeros diagnósticos, AVISAS Totales y APMP; mayor semejanza en AVD con subregiones AMRO B y D; esperanzas de vida totales similares a subregión AMRO A; esperanzas de vida con discapacidad semejantes a subregiones AMRO B y D; en entidades federativas, a mayor desarrollo socioeconómico, mayor AVD y esperanzas de vidas con discapacidad y menor APMP. Conclusión: Los afiliados al IMSS acumulan una carga de morbilidad mayor a lo esperado y en entidades federativas se asocia directamente con el desarrollo socioeconómico. Se infiere que, en el 2000, los afiliados al IMSS experimentaban baja mortalidad con expansión de morbilidad.

The burden of disease was estimated in people affiliated to the Mexican Social Insurance Institute -IMSS- in 2000.Main results: Similarities with AMRO A subregion and Australia in first causes of burden, total DALY and years lost due to premature mortality; similarities withAMRO B and D subregions in disability live expectancy; highest socioeconomic development associated with highest magnitude of years lived with disability and disability live expectancyat federative entities level. Conclusion: An unexpective high burden of morbidity with disability was found in people affiliated to IMSS; in federative entities, the burden of morbidity is associatedwith socioeconomic level. These results permit to infer, ecologically, that this population is experimented low levels of mortality with an expansion of morbidity.

Estimou-se a carga de doença no IMSS em 2000. Resultados: semelhanças com sub-região AMRO A e Austrália nos primeiros diagnósticos, AVISAS Totais e APMP; maior semelhança em AVD com sub-regiões AMRO B e D; expectativa de vida total similar a sub-região AMROA; expectativa de vida com deficiência semelhantes às sub-regiões AMRO B e D; em entidades federativas, quanto maior desenvolvimento socioeconômico, maior AVD e expectativa de vidas com deficiência e menor APMP. Conclusão: Os filiados ao IMSS acumulam una cargade morbilidade superior à esperada e em entidades federativas associa-se diretamente com o desenvolvimento socioeconômico. Infere-se que, em 2000, os filiados ao IMSS experimentavam baixa mortalidade com expansão de morbilidade.

[Factors affecting how long exclusive breastfeeding lasts]. / Factores Asociados a la Lactancia Materna Exclusiva en Población Pobre de Areas Urbanas de Colombia.

OBJECTIVE: Identifying factors associated with exclusive breastfeeding by poor urban women in Colombia . METHODOLOGY: A random sample of women living in poor neighborhoods from four Colombian cities ( Cali , Cartagena , Medellín and Ibague ) was made (survey method), using a cross-sectional design; survival analysis techniques were applied. RESULTS: Bivariate analysis identified hospital bottle use, the women's marital status, and relationship with the head of household as having had a significant effect on the duration of exclusive breastfeeding. Multivariate analysis identified the non-use of bottles in hospital as favoring a longer breast feeding period. CONCLUSIONS: Reducing hospital bottle use is readily achievable by health system action; increasing the time mothers spend with their infants is more difficult. A relevant finding was that more mothers were unaware of breastfeeding's maternal benefits than those who were unaware of its benefits for the baby. If mothers were made more aware of the maternal benefits, an increasing number might insist on being the main caregiver and take care of their children for longer periods of time.

Factores Asociados a la Lactancia Materna Exclusiva en Población Pobre de Áreas Urbanas de Colombia / Factors affecting how long exclusive breastfeeding lasts

Objetivos: Identificar factores asociados con la lactancia materna exclusiva en población pobre de áreas urbanas de Colombia. Metodología: En un diseño de corte transversal que empleó el método de encuesta, se seleccionó una muestra probabilística de mujeres de barrios pobres de cuatro ciudades de Colombia: Cali, Cartagena, Medellín e Ibagué. Se utilizaron técnicas de análisis de supervivencia. Resultados: En el análisis bivariado por las ciudades estudiadas, las variables asociadas significativamente con el tiempo de lactancia exclusiva fueron: uso del biberón en el hospital, ocupación, estado conyugal y relación con el jefe de hogar de la madre. En el análisis multivariado se encontró que el "no uso de biberón en el hospital" fue el factor más asociado con una mayor duración del tiempo de lactancia materna exclusiva, para el total de casos y la ciudad de Medellín. Conclusiones: Disminuir el uso del biberón en los hospitales es un objetivo susceptible de ser alcanzado con acciones en el sistema de provisión de servicios de salud. Mientras que incrementar el número de madres que estén más tiempo con sus bebés, resulta más difícil de alcanzar. Es relevante el hallazgo de un alto porcentaje de desconocimiento de los beneficios que para las madres tiene la lactancia materna, frente al bajo porcentaje de desconocimiento que se perciben de los beneficios para los hijos. Si la madre lograra percibir más beneficios para ella en la práctica de la lactancia, podría esto mejorar el porcentaje de las que cuidan habitualmente a su niño pequeño y dedicar más tiempo a sus hijos.

Objective: Identifying factors associated with exclusive breastfeeding by poor urban women in Colombia . Methodology: A random sample of women living in poor neighborhoods from four Colombian cities ( Cali , Cartagena , Medellín and Ibague ) was made (survey method), using a cross-sectional design; survival analysis techniques were applied. Results: Bivariate analysis identified hospital bottle use, the women's marital status, and relationship with the head of household as having had a significant effect on the duration of exclusive breastfeeding. Multivariate analysis identified the non-use of bottles in hospital as favoring a longer breast feeding period. Conclusions: Reducing hospital bottle use is readily achievable by health system action; increasing the time mothers spend with their infants is more difficult. A relevant finding was that more mothers were unaware of breastfeeding's maternal benefits than those who were unaware of its benefits for the baby. If mothers were made more aware of the maternal benefits, an increasing number might insist on being the main caregiver and take care of their children for longer periods of time.

[Socioeconomic inequality and its association with mortality indicators in the departments of Colombia in 2000]. / Desigualdades socioeconómicas entre departmentos y su asociación con indicadores de mortalidad en Colombia en 2000.

OBJECTIVES: To study the inequalities in various mortality indicators for the departments of Colombia with respect to national figures, and to identify associations between the departmental mortality indicators and departmental socioeconomic indicators. METHODS: To determine mortality rates and the Gini coefficient for mortality for the departments, data from the death registry were adjusted by the estimated registry coverage for each of the departments. Five socioeconomic indicators were selected: Gini coefficient for income distribution, Human Development Index, per capita gross domestic product, per capita social investment (in health care, etc.), and percentage of the population with health care services from the country's social security system. The differences among the departments were then studied and compared to the national averages. The Spearman's rank correlation coefficient was calculated to find associations between the mortality indicators and each of the five socioeconomic indicators. RESULTS: For Colombia overall, death registry coverage was estimated at 76%, with Chocó department having the lowest coverage (35%), and Caldas department the highest (88%). The associations between the Gini coefficient for mortality and four of the socioeconomic indicators studied were significant. The national mortality rate was significantly associated with one socioeconomic indicator. Death caused by diabetes mellitus was associated with all the socioeconomic indicators; death caused by undernutrition or by diarrhea, with four socioeconomic indicators; and death from traffic accidents, with two socioeconomic indicators. Homicide was not associated with any of the socioeconomic indicators studied. CONCLUSIONS: Adjusting the death registry data produced mortality indicators that were more valid for drawing associations with socioeconomic indicators. The Gini coefficient of mortality, mortality from undernutrition, and mortality from diarrheal diseases were more suitable indicators for evaluating the inequalities among the departments because of their higher levels of association with the socioeconomic indicators. Regarding diabetes-related mortality, the associations with all the socioeconomic indicators could be due to systematic errors that lesser-developed departments made when the cause of death was being assigned. A department is a large unit for analysis, which can make it difficult to identify associations between socioeconomic indicators and deaths due to homicide or traffic accidents.

Desigualdades socioeconómicas entre departmentos y su asociación con indicadores de mortalidad en Colombia en 2000 / Socioeconomic inequality and its association with mortality indicators in the departments of Colombia in 2000

OBJETIVOS: Estudiar las desigualdades de indicadores de mortalidad departamentales con respecto a los valores nacionales colombianos e identificar asociaciones con indicadores socioeconómicos. MÉTODOS: Los datos del registro de defunciones se ajustaron según la cobertura estimada y se calcularon las tasas y los coeficientes de Gini de mortalidad. Se seleccionaron cinco indicadores socioeconómicos departamentales -el coeficiente de Gini de la distribución de ingresos, el índice de desarrollo humano, el índice del producto interno bruto per cápita, la inversión social per cápita y el porcentaje de la población con cobertura sanitaria pública- y se examinaron las diferencias entre los departamentos y el ámbito nacional. Se calcularon los coeficientes de correlación de Spearman entre los indicadores de mortalidad y los indicadores socioeconómicos seleccionados. RESULTADOS: La cobertura del registro de defunciones se estimó en un 76 por ciento; el departamento del Chocó presentó el menor valor (35 por ciento) y el de Caldas, el mayor (88 por ciento). El coeficiente de Gini de mortalidad se asoció significativamente con cuatro indicadores socioeconómicos estudiados y la tasa global de mortalidad, con un indicador. La mortalidad por diabetes mellitus se asoció positivamente con todos los indicadores socioeconómicos, las mortalidades por desnutrición y por diarrea, con cuatro indicadores, y la mortalidad por accidentes del tránsito, con dos indicadores. La mortalidad por agresiones no se asoció con ninguno de los indicadores estudiados. CONCLUSIONES: El ajuste de los datos de defunciones permitió obtener indicadores de mortalidad más válidos en la asociación con los indicadores socioeconómicos. El coeficiente de Gini de mortalidad y las mortalidades por desnutrición y diarreas resultaron más idóneos para evaluar las desigualdades interdepartamentales por la mejor asociación presentada con los indicadores socioeconómicos. La asociación encontrada...

OBJECTIVES: To study the inequalities in various mortality indicators for the departments of Colombia with respect to national figures, and to identify associations between the departmental mortality indicators and departmental socioeconomic indicators. METHODS: To determine mortality rates and the Gini coefficient for mortality for the departments, data from the death registry were adjusted by the estimated registry coverage for each of the departments. Five socioeconomic indicators were selected: Gini coefficient for income distribution, Human Development Index, per capita gross domestic product, per capita social investment (in health care, etc.), and percentage of the population with health care services from the country's social security system. The differences among the departments were then studied and compared to the national averages. The Spearman's rank correlation coefficient was calculated to find associations between the mortality indicators and each of the five socioeconomic indicators. RESULTS: For Colombia overall, death registry coverage was estimated at 76 percent, with Chocó department having the lowest coverage (35 percent), and Caldas department the highest (88 percent). The associations between the Gini coefficient for mortality and four of the socioeconomic indicators studied were significant. The national mortality rate was significantly associated with one socioeconomic indicator. Death caused by diabetes mellitus was associated with all the socioeconomic indicators; death caused by undernutrition or by diarrhea, with four socioeconomic indicators; and death from traffic accidents, with two socioeconomic indicators. Homicide was not associated with any of the socioeconomic indicators studied. CONCLUSIONS: Adjusting the death registry data produced mortality indicators that were more valid for drawing associations with socioeconomic indicators. The Gini coefficient of mortality, mortality from undernutrition, and...

Introducción: estimulación cardiaca con marcapasos / No disponible

No disponible

Conceptos técnicos fundamentales de la estimulación cardiaca / Cardiac pacing: basic technical considerations

Los marcapasos, para generar los impulsos eléctricos y alimentar sus circuitos, precisan de una fuente de energía, que en la actualidad es una pila de litio-yodo, de capacidad limitada aunque su carga sea tres veces mayor por unidad de volumen que la disponible en las baterías empleadas hace 30 años. A continuación se exponen aspectos técnicos básicos cuyo conocimiento es necesario para obtener un bajo consumo de energía y de este modo prolongar la vida útil de los generadores. La programación de la energía del impulso permite reducir el consumo, por lo que es fundamental obtener un óptimo umbral de estimulación, que en gran parte depende de la interfase electrodo-endocardio. También se revisan los automatismos de respuesta en frecuencia, detección y reducción de la estimulación ventricular innecesaria, así como la digitalización de las señales intracardiacas (AU)

Cardiac pacemakers need an energy supply to generate pulses and to power internal circuitry. At present, that energy is provided by a lithium iodine cell, which has a limited capacity although it holds three times the charge per unit volume of batteries used 30 years ago. This article describes the basic techniques used for ensuring that energy consumption is low and, consequently, that the pacemaker’s useful life is as long as possible. Careful programming reduces the energy used in each impulse and lowers consumption. Therefore, it is essential to determine the optimum pacing threshold, which largely depends on the electrode-endocardium interface. This article also contains a review of automatic pacemaker functions, such as rate-responsiveness and the detection and reduction of unnecessary ventricular pacing, and an update on digital processing of intracardiac signals (AU)