Early developmental trajectory of children with prenatal alcohol and opioid exposure.

BACKGROUND: With significant increases in opioid use/misuse and persistent high prevalence of prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE), identifying infants at risk for long-term developmental sequelae due to these exposures remains an urgent need. This study reports on developmental outcomes in young children from a prospective cohort, ENRICH-1, which recruited pregnant women and followed up maternal-infant pairs. METHODS: Subjects were assigned to four study groups based on prenatal use of medications for opioid use disorder (MOUD), PAE, MOUD+PAE, and unexposed controls (UC). Mixed effects modeling was used to evaluate changes in the Bayley Scales of Infant Development-III (BSID-III) Cognitive, Language, and Motor scores between 6 and 20 months. RESULTS: There was a significant three-way interaction (MOUD-by-PAE-by-Time) with respect to the BSID-III Cognitive (p = 0.045) and Motor (p = 0.033) scales. Significant changes between the two evaluations were observed for MOUD group in Cognitive and Language scores; for PAE group in Cognitive, Language, and Motor scores, and for MOUD+PAE group in Language scores after adjusting for child sex and family socio-economic status. The developmental scores for the UC remained stable. CONCLUSION: Observed decline in neurodevelopmental scores during the first 2 years of life emphasizes the importance of a longitudinal approach when evaluating children with prenatal polysubstance exposure. IMPACT: BSID-III scores were stable during the first 2 years of life for unexposed children. BSID-III scores declined for children with prenatal exposures to alcohol and/or opioids. Standard developmental tests may not be sensitive enough during the first year of life. Findings emphasize the need for repeated evaluations of children who are at high risk.

The maternal-placental-fetal interface: Adaptations of the HPA axis and immune mediators following maternal stress and prenatal alcohol exposure.

This review addresses underlying physiological, cellular, and molecular factors that alter the developing fetal brain stress circuits and responses of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis caused by maternal stress and prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE). An emphasis is placed on the contribution of the placenta following maternal stress separately, and as a co-occurrence with PAE. Altered fetal HPA axis ultimately results in dysregulation of the brain stress-response system long after birth and possibly lifelong. Additional consideration of the role of placentally-derived endocrine and sex hormones, as well as a brief discussion of epigenetic mechanisms of altered placental expression of genes encoding the glucocorticoid receptor and the enzymes 11ß-HSD that rapidly convert glucocorticoids into its active or inactive forms are reviewed. Data highlighting the strong, reciprocal interactions between the neuroimmune and neuroendocrine systems during fetal development that are impacted by maternal stress and PAE are considered, emphasizing the role of the placenta as a key contributor to the dysregulation of these systems. In view of the maternal-placental-fetal interface, important physiological, cellular, and molecular factors underlying later life dysregulated stress responses are additionally considered. Literature from animal models of PAE and maternal stress is reviewed that support clinical observations of the effect of maternal stress and alcohol exposure during fetal development on later-life adult stress responses and associated mood dysregulation. An appreciation of dysregulated stress responses in individuals with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) are addressed given the greater prevalence of adult dysregulated stress responses and a greater co-occurrence of mood disorders in individuals diagnosed with FASD.

Effects of prenatal opioid and alcohol exposures on immune and serotonin factors in human placenta.

PURPOSE: Opioids and alcohol impact critical serotonin (5-HT) function in the developing placenta and fetus through the actions of immune proinflammatory factors. Yet, possible convergent effects of opioids and alcohol on human placental toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) activation and subsequent 5-HT homeostasis remain entirely unknown. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of prenatal exposure to opioids with or without prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) on the expression of key placental immune and serotonin signaling factors in human placental tissue obtained from a well-characterized prospective cohort. METHODS: Data were collected from a subset of participants enrolled in the prospective pre-birth Ethanol, Neurodevelopment, Infant, and Child Health (ENRICH-1) cohort. Women were recruited and classified into four study groups: 1) PAE (n = 20); 2) those taking medications for opioid use disorder (MOUD; n = 28), 3) concurrent PAE and MOUD (n = 20); and 4) controls (HC; n = 20) based on prospective, repeated self-report, and biomarker analysis. Placenta samples underwent tissue processing to identify mRNA for TLR4, nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (NOD)-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3), interleukin-1ß (IL-1ß), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), serotonin transporter (SERT), tryptophan hydroxylase (TPH1), indoleamine 2,3-Dioxygenase 1 (IDO) as well as protein concentrations of TLR4, IL-1ß, TNF-α, SERT. To consider the association between study group and mRNA/protein expression of our targets, multivariable regression models were developed with inclusion of a priori selected covariates. RESULTS: There was a significant negative association between PAE and SERT mRNA (ß = -0.01; p < 0.01) and a positive association with TPH1 mRNA expression (ß = 0.78; p < 0.05). In addition, there was a negative association between MOUD and TNF-α protein expression (ß = -0.12; p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: This study provides the first evidence that PAE may inhibit SERT expression while simultaneously promoting increased TPH1 protein expression in human placenta. This may result in increased 5-HT in fetal circulation known to affect neurodevelopment. Our data suggest that opioids and alcohol may disturb the bidirectional, dynamic interaction between the placental immune and serotonin system. Given the implication for brain development and health across the life-span further investigation of these critical mechanisms in well-defined cohorts is required.

CONSIDER New Mexico: Effects of naloxone training among pharmacists and pharmacy technicians.

BACKGROUND: Pharmacists serve a critical role in providing health care, especially in medically underserved areas. Despite the opioid crisis and legislation in most states allowing pharmacists to dispense naloxone without a prescription from another provider, pharmacists face multiple barriers to dispensing naloxone. OBJECTIVE: This study tested the effectiveness of CONSIDER New Mexico, an innovative educational initiative designed to increase naloxone dispensing by pharmacies. METHODS: A quasi-experimental study was conducted in New Mexico in 2019-2020. Community pharmacists and pharmacy technicians were recruited from a purposive sample of pharmacies. Data were collected through pre- and postintervention surveys with 65 pharmacists and 44 technicians from 49 pharmacies. Data analysis included hybrid fixed-effects regression models of variables associated with pre-post intervention change in intent to dispense naloxone and generalized least squares with maximum likelihood estimation for pre-post intervention change in naloxone dispensing. RESULTS: Positive intervention effects were observed for measures of normative beliefs, self-efficacy, and intent to dispense naloxone (P < 0.05). Changes in normative beliefs and self-efficacy were associated with greater intent to offer naloxone to patients (P < 0.05). In addition, the median number of naloxone prescriptions dispensed per month increased 3.5 times after intervention. A statistically significant positive association was observed between the intervention and naloxone dispensing after adjusting for other factors (P < 0.001). Pharmacies providing more than 4 additional health services were more likely to increase naloxone dispensing postintervention than pharmacies offering not more than 2 services (P < 0.01). This difference averaged 19 naloxone prescriptions per month. Estimated change in dispensing postintervention was statistically significantly lower at independent, clinic-based, and other pharmacies where an average of 36 fewer naloxone prescriptions were dispensed per month compared with chain drug stores (P = 0.03). CONCLUSION: The CONSIDER New Mexico intervention effectively increased self-efficacy, intent to dispense, and naloxone dispensing. Findings will inform future research examining widespread dissemination and implementation of the intervention and the sustainability of intervention effects.

Maternal verbal scaffolding: association with higher language skills for 20-month-old children with prenatal polysubstance exposure.

BACKGROUND: The number of children with prenatal polysubstance exposure is increasing. Supportive mother-child interaction is a protective factor, which can ameliorate adverse effects of prenatal polysubstance exposure on developmental outcomes. AIM: To examine the role of maternal verbal scaffolding on cognitive and language development in children with prenatal polysubstance exposure. STUDY DESIGN: Pregnant women were recruited, and we prospectively followed mother-child dyads to 20 months of age. This analysis included 66 dyads (33 healthy controls and 33 with prenatal polysubstance exposure). Multivariable linear regression modelling was used to examine the cross-sectional association between maternal scaffolding and Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development (BSID-III) score, as well as an interaction between the study group and scaffolding score. OUTCOME MEASURES: The BSID-III cognitive and language score was used. Videotaped mother-child play was coded to obtain a maternal verbal scaffolding score. Effect sizes were measured using average differences in scores between groups. RESULTS: There was no evidence of an association between study group and maternal scaffolding scores. Children in the polysubstance exposure group had lower cognitive and language scores compared to controls, but this association was not statistically significant after controlling for maternal education. Maternal scaffolding was predictive of language scores, with scores increasing by 1.24 points on average (95% CI: 0.42, 2.06) for every 1-point increase in scaffolding score after adjustment for covariates. There was no evidence of a study group-by-scaffolding interaction with respect to the language or cognitive scores. CONCLUSIONS: Maternal scaffolding during play was associated with language development in children with and without prenatal polysubstance exposure.

You Didn't Drink During Pregnancy, Did You?

BACKGROUND: Accurate characterization of prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) is challenging due to inconsistent use of screening questionnaires in routine prenatal care and substantial underreporting due to stigma associated with alcohol use in pregnancy. The aim of this study was to identify self-report tools that are efficient in accurately characterizing PAE. METHODS: Participants meeting eligibility criteria for mild-to-moderate PAE were recruited into the University of New Mexico Ethanol, Neurodevelopment, Infant and Child Health cohort (N = 121) and followed prospectively. Timeline follow-back (TLFB) interviews were administered at baseline to capture alcohol use in the periconceptional period and 30 days before enrollment; reported quantity was converted to oz absolute alcohol (AA), multiplied by frequency of use and averaged across 2 TLBF calendars. The interview also included questions about timing and number of drinks at the most recent drinking episode, maximum number of drinks in a 24-hour period since the last menstrual period, and number of drinks on "special occasions" (irrespective of whether these occurred within the TLFB reported period). Continuous measures of alcohol use were analyzed to yield the number of binge episodes by participants who consumed ≥4 drinks/occasion. The proportion of women with ≥1 binge episode was also tabulated for each type of assessment. RESULTS: Average alcohol consumption was 0.6 ± 1.3 oz of AA/day (≈ 8.4 drinks/wk). Only 3.3% of participants reported ≥1 binge episode on the TLFB, 19.8% had ≥1 binge episode when asked about "special occasions," and 52.1% when asked about the number of drinks the last time they drank alcohol. An even higher prevalence (89.3%) of bingeing was obtained based on the maximum number of drinks consumed in a 24-hour period. CONCLUSIONS: Self-reported quantity of alcohol use varies greatly based on type of questions asked. Brief targeted questions about maximum number of drinks in 24 hours and total number of drinks during the most recent drinking episode provide much higher estimates of alcohol use and thus might be less affected by self-reporting bias.