Disrupted hypothalamic transcriptomics and proteomics in a mouse model of type 2 diabetes exposed to recurrent hypoglycaemia.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: Repeated exposures to insulin-induced hypoglycaemia in people with diabetes progressively impairs the counterregulatory response (CRR) that restores normoglycaemia. This defect is characterised by reduced secretion of glucagon and other counterregulatory hormones. Evidence indicates that glucose-responsive neurons located in the hypothalamus orchestrate the CRR. Here, we aimed to identify the changes in hypothalamic gene and protein expression that underlie impaired CRR in a mouse model of defective CRR. METHODS: High-fat-diet fed and low-dose streptozocin-treated C57BL/6N mice were exposed to one (acute hypoglycaemia [AH]) or multiple (recurrent hypoglycaemia [RH]) insulin-induced hypoglycaemic episodes and plasma glucagon levels were measured. Single-nuclei RNA-seq (snRNA-seq) data were obtained from the hypothalamus and cortex of mice exposed to AH and RH. Proteomic data were obtained from hypothalamic synaptosomal fractions. RESULTS: The final insulin injection resulted in similar plasma glucose levels in the RH group and AH groups, but glucagon secretion was significantly lower in the RH group (AH: 94.5±9.2 ng/l [n=33]; RH: 59.0±4.8 ng/l [n=37]; p<0.001). Analysis of snRNA-seq data revealed similar proportions of hypothalamic cell subpopulations in the AH- and RH-exposed mice. Changes in transcriptional profiles were found in all cell types analysed. In neurons from RH-exposed mice, we observed a significant decrease in expression of Avp, Pmch and Pcsk1n, and the most overexpressed gene was Kcnq1ot1, as compared with AH-exposed mice. Gene ontology analysis of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) indicated a coordinated decrease in many oxidative phosphorylation genes and reduced expression of vacuolar H+- and Na+/K+-ATPases; these observations were in large part confirmed in the proteomic analysis of synaptosomal fractions. Compared with AH-exposed mice, oligodendrocytes from RH-exposed mice had major changes in gene expression that suggested reduced myelin formation. In astrocytes from RH-exposed mice, DEGs indicated reduced capacity for neurotransmitters scavenging in tripartite synapses as compared with astrocytes from AH-exposed mice. In addition, in neurons and astrocytes, multiple changes in gene expression suggested increased amyloid beta (Aß) production and stability. The snRNA-seq analysis of the cortex showed that the adaptation to RH involved different biological processes from those seen in the hypothalamus. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: The present study provides a model of defective counterregulation in a mouse model of type 2 diabetes. It shows that repeated hypoglycaemic episodes induce multiple defects affecting all hypothalamic cell types and their interactions, indicative of impaired neuronal network signalling and dysegulated hypoglycaemia sensing, and displaying features of neurodegenerative diseases. It also shows that repeated hypoglycaemia leads to specific molecular adaptation in the hypothalamus when compared with the cortex. DATA AVAILABILITY: The transcriptomic dataset is available via the GEO ( http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/geo/ ), using the accession no. GSE226277. The proteomic dataset is available via the ProteomeXchange data repository ( http://www.proteomexchange.org ), using the accession no. PXD040183.

Tmem117 in AVP neurons regulates the counterregulatory response to hypoglycemia.

The counterregulatory response to hypoglycemia (CRR), which ensures a sufficient glucose supply to the brain, is an essential survival function. It is orchestrated by incompletely characterized glucose-sensing neurons, which trigger a coordinated autonomous and hormonal response that restores normoglycemia. Here, we investigate the role of hypothalamic Tmem117, identified in a genetic screen as a regulator of CRR. We show that Tmem117 is expressed in vasopressin magnocellular neurons of the hypothalamus. Tmem117 inactivation in these neurons increases hypoglycemia-induced vasopressin secretion leading to higher glucagon secretion in male mice, and this effect is estrus cycle phase dependent in female mice. Ex vivo electrophysiological analysis, in situ hybridization, and in vivo calcium imaging reveal that Tmem117 inactivation does not affect the glucose-sensing properties of vasopressin neurons but increases ER stress, ROS production, and intracellular calcium levels accompanied by increased vasopressin production and secretion. Thus, Tmem117 in vasopressin neurons is a physiological regulator of glucagon secretion, which highlights the role of these neurons in the coordinated response to hypoglycemia.

Homocysteine Metabolism Pathway Is Involved in the Control of Glucose Homeostasis: A Cystathionine Beta Synthase Deficiency Study in Mouse.

Cystathionine beta synthase (CBS) catalyzes the first step of the transsulfuration pathway from homocysteine to cystathionine, and its deficiency leads to hyperhomocysteinemia (HHcy) in humans and rodents. To date, scarce information is available about the HHcy effect on insulin secretion, and the link between CBS activity and the setting of type 2 diabetes is still unknown. We aimed to decipher the consequences of an inborn defect in CBS on glucose homeostasis in mice. We used a mouse model heterozygous for CBS (CBS+/-) that presented a mild HHcy. Other groups were supplemented with methionine in drinking water to increase the mild to intermediate HHcy, and were submitted to a high-fat diet (HFD). We measured the food intake, body weight gain, body composition, glucose homeostasis, plasma homocysteine level, and CBS activity. We evidenced a defect in the stimulated insulin secretion in CBS+/- mice with mild and intermediate HHcy, while mice with intermediate HHcy under HFD presented an improvement in insulin sensitivity that compensated for the decreased insulin secretion and permitted them to maintain a glucose tolerance similar to the CBS+/+ mice. Islets isolated from CBS+/- mice maintained their ability to respond to the elevated glucose levels, and we showed that a lower parasympathetic tone could, at least in part, be responsible for the insulin secretion defect. Our results emphasize the important role of Hcy metabolic enzymes in insulin secretion and overall glucose homeostasis.

Structural and molecular characterization of paraventricular thalamic glucokinase-expressing neuronal circuits in the mouse.

The thalamic paraventricular nucleus (PVT) is a structure highly interconnected with several nuclei ranging from forebrain to hypothalamus and brainstem. Numerous rodent studies have examined afferent and efferent connections of the PVT and their contribution to behavior, revealing its important role in the integration of arousal cues. However, the majority of these studies used a region-oriented approach, without considering the neuronal subtype diversity of the nucleus. In the present study, we provide the anatomical and transcriptomic characterization of a subpopulation of PVT neurons molecularly defined by the expression of glucokinase (Gck). Combining a genetically modified mouse model with viral tracing approaches, we mapped both the anterograde and the retrograde projections of Gck-positive neurons of the anterior PVT (GckaPVT ). Our results demonstrated that GckaPVT neurons innervate several nuclei throughout the brain axis. The strongest connections are with forebrain areas associated with reward and stress and with hypothalamic structures involved in energy balance and feeding regulation. Furthermore, transcriptomic analysis of the Gck-expressing neurons revealed that they are enriched in receptors for hypothalamic-derived neuropeptides, adhesion molecules, and obesity and diabetes susceptibility transcription factors. Using retrograde labeling combined with immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization, we identify that GckaPVT neurons receive direct inputs from well-defined hypothalamic populations, including arginine-vasopressin-, melanin-concentrating hormone-, orexin-, and proopiomelanocortin-expressing neurons. This detailed anatomical and transcriptomic characterization of GckaPVT neurons provides a basis for functional studies of the integration of homeostatic and hedonic aspects of energy homeostasis, and for deciphering the potential role of these neurons in obesity and diabetes development.

The Constitutive Lack of α7 Nicotinic Receptor Leads to Metabolic Disorders in Mouse.

OBJECTIVE: Type 2 diabetes (T2D) occurs by deterioration in pancreatic ß-cell function and/or progressive loss of pancreatic ß-cell mass under the context of insulin resistance. α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) may contribute to insulin sensitivity but its role in the pathogenesis of T2D remains undefined. We investigated whether the systemic lack of α7 nAChR was sufficient to impair glucose homeostasis. METHODS: We used an α7 nAChR knock-out (α7-/-) mouse model fed a standard chow diet. The effects of the lack of α7 nAChR on islet mass, insulin secretion, glucose and insulin tolerance, body composition, and food behaviour were assessed in vivo and ex vivo experiments. RESULTS: Young α7-/- mice display a chronic mild high glycemia combined with an impaired glucose tolerance and a marked deficit in ß-cell mass. In addition to these metabolic disorders, old mice developed adipose tissue inflammation, elevated plasma free fatty acid concentrations and presented glycolytic muscle insulin resistance in old mice. Finally, α7-/- mice, fed a chow diet, exhibited a late-onset excessive gain in body weight through increased fat mass associated with higher food intake. CONCLUSION: Our work highlights the important role of α7 nAChR in glucose homeostasis. The constitutive lack of α7 nAChR suggests a novel pathway influencing the pathogenesis of T2D.