Insights into Enzymatic Catalysis from Binding and Hydrolysis of Diadenosine Tetraphosphate by E. coli Adenylate Kinase.

Adenylate kinases play a crucial role in cellular energy homeostasis through the interconversion of ATP, AMP, and ADP in all living organisms. Here, we explore how adenylate kinase (AdK) from Escherichia coli interacts with diadenosine tetraphosphate (AP4A), a putative alarmone associated with transcriptional regulation, stress, and DNA damage response. From a combination of EPR and NMR spectroscopy together with X-ray crystallography, we found that AdK interacts with AP4A with two distinct modes that occur on disparate time scales. First, AdK dynamically interconverts between open and closed states with equal weights in the presence of AP4A. On a much slower time scale, AdK hydrolyses AP4A, and we suggest that the dynamically accessed substrate-bound open AdK conformation enables this hydrolytic activity. The partitioning of the enzyme into open and closed states is discussed in relation to a recently proposed linkage between active site dynamics and collective conformational dynamics.

Insights into the evolution of enzymatic specificity and catalysis: From Asgard archaea to human adenylate kinases.

Enzymatic catalysis is critically dependent on selectivity, active site architecture, and dynamics. To contribute insights into the interplay of these properties, we established an approach with NMR, crystallography, and MD simulations focused on the ubiquitous phosphotransferase adenylate kinase (AK) isolated from Odinarchaeota (OdinAK). Odinarchaeota belongs to the Asgard archaeal phylum that is believed to be the closest known ancestor to eukaryotes. We show that OdinAK is a hyperthermophilic trimer that, contrary to other AK family members, can use all NTPs for its phosphorylation reaction. Crystallographic structures of OdinAK-NTP complexes revealed a universal NTP-binding motif, while 19F NMR experiments uncovered a conserved and rate-limiting dynamic signature. As a consequence of trimerization, the active site of OdinAK was found to be lacking a critical catalytic residue and is therefore considered to be "atypical." On the basis of discovered relationships with human monomeric homologs, our findings are discussed in terms of evolution of enzymatic substrate specificity and cold adaptation.

Tracking the ATP-binding response in adenylate kinase in real time.

The biological function of proteins is critically dependent on dynamics inherent to the native structure. Such structural dynamics obey a predefined order and temporal timing to execute the specific reaction. Determination of the cooperativity of key structural rearrangements requires monitoring protein reactions in real time. In this work, we used time-resolved x-ray solution scattering (TR-XSS) to visualize structural changes in the Escherichia coli adenylate kinase (AdK) enzyme upon laser-induced activation of a protected ATP substrate. A 4.3-ms transient intermediate showed partial closing of both the ATP- and AMP-binding domains, which indicates a cooperative closing mechanism. The ATP-binding domain also showed local unfolding and breaking of an Arg131-Asp146 salt bridge. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy data identified similar unfolding in an Arg131Ala AdK mutant, which refolded in a closed, substrate-binding conformation. The observed structural dynamics agree with a "cracking mechanism" proposed to underlie global structural transformation, such as allostery, in proteins.

Dynamic Connection between Enzymatic Catalysis and Collective Protein Motions.

Enzymes employ a wide range of protein motions to achieve efficient catalysis of chemical reactions. While the role of collective protein motions in substrate binding, product release, and regulation of enzymatic activity is generally understood, their roles in catalytic steps per se remain uncertain. Here, molecular dynamics simulations, enzyme kinetics, X-ray crystallography, and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy are combined to elucidate the catalytic mechanism of adenylate kinase and to delineate the roles of catalytic residues in catalysis and the conformational change in the enzyme. This study reveals that the motions in the active site, which occur on a time scale of picoseconds to nanoseconds, link the catalytic reaction to the slow conformational dynamics of the enzyme by modulating the free energy landscapes of subdomain motions. In particular, substantial conformational rearrangement occurs in the active site following the catalytic reaction. This rearrangement not only affects the reaction barrier but also promotes a more open conformation of the enzyme after the reaction, which then results in an accelerated opening of the enzyme compared to that of the reactant state. The results illustrate a linkage between enzymatic catalysis and collective protein motions, whereby the disparate time scales between the two processes are bridged by a cascade of intermediate-scale motion of catalytic residues modulating the free energy landscapes of the catalytic and conformational change processes.

Milligram scale expression, refolding, and purification of Bombyx mori cocoonase using a recombinant E. coli system.

Silk is one of the most versatile biomaterials with signature properties of outstanding mechanical strength and flexibility. A potential avenue for developing more environmentally friendly silk production is to make use of the silk moth (Bombyx mori) cocoonase, this will at the same time increase the possibility for using the byproduct, sericin, as a raw material for other applications. Cocoonase is a serine protease utilized by the silk moth to soften the cocoon to enable its escape after completed metamorphosis. Cocoonase selectively degrades the glue protein of the cocoon, sericin, without affecting the silk-fiber made of the protein fibroin. Cocoonase can be recombinantly produced in E. coli, however, it is exclusively found as insoluble inclusion bodies. To solve this problem and to be able to utilize the benefits associated with an E. coli based expression system, we have developed a protocol that enables the production of soluble and functional protease in the milligram/liter scale. The core of the protocol is refolding of the protein in a buffer with a redox potential that is optimized for formation of native and intramolecular di-sulfide bridges. The redox potential was balanced with defined concentrations of reduced and oxidized glutathione. This E.coli based production protocol will, in addition to structure determination, also enable modification of cocoonase both in terms of catalytic function and stability. These factors will be valuable components in the development of alternate silk production methodology.

Structural Basis for GTP versus ATP Selectivity in the NMP Kinase AK3.

ATP and GTP are exceptionally important molecules in biology with multiple, and often discrete, functions. Therefore, enzymes that bind to either of them must develop robust mechanisms to selectively utilize one or the other. Here, this specific problem is addressed by molecular studies of the human NMP kinase AK3, which uses GTP to phosphorylate AMP. AK3 plays an important role in the citric acid cycle, where it is responsible for GTP/GDP recycling. By combining a structural biology approach with functional experiments, we present a comprehensive structural and mechanistic understanding of the enzyme. We discovered that AK3 functions by recruitment of GTP to the active site, while ATP is rejected and nonproductively bound to the AMP binding site. Consequently, ATP acts as an inhibitor with respect to GTP and AMP. The overall features with specific recognition of the correct substrate and nonproductive binding by the incorrect substrate bear a strong similarity to previous findings for the ATP specific NMP kinase adenylate kinase. Taken together, we are now able to provide the fundamental principles for GTP and ATP selectivity in the large NMP kinase family. As a side-result originating from nonlinearity of chemical shifts in GTP and ATP titrations, we find that protein surfaces offer a general and weak binding affinity for both GTP and ATP. These nonspecific interactions likely act to lower the available intracellular GTP and ATP concentrations and may have driven evolution of the Michaelis constants of NMP kinases accordingly.

Nucleation of an Activating Conformational Change by a Cation-π Interaction.

As a key molecule in biology, adenosine triphosphate (ATP) has numerous crucial functions in, for instance, energetics, post-translational modifications, nucleotide biosynthesis, and cofactor metabolism. Here, we have discovered an intricate interplay between the enzyme adenylate kinase and its substrate ATP. The side chain of an arginine residue was found to be an efficient sensor of the aromatic moiety of ATP through the formation of a strong cation-π interaction. In addition to recognition, the interaction was found to have dual functionality. First, it nucleates the activating conformational transition of the ATP binding domain and also affects the specificity in the distant AMP binding domain. In light of the functional consequences resulting from the cation-π interaction, it is possible that the mode of ATP recognition may be a useful tool in enzyme design.

Dynamic pH-induced conformational changes of the PsbO protein in the fluctuating acidity of the thylakoid lumen.

The PsbO protein is an essential extrinsic subunit of photosystem II, the pigment-protein complex responsible for light-driven water splitting. Water oxidation in photosystem II supplies electrons to the photosynthetic electron transfer chain and is accompanied by proton release and oxygen evolution. While the electron transfer steps in this process are well defined and characterized, the driving forces acting on the liberated protons, their dynamics and their destiny are all largely unknown. It was suggested that PsbO undergoes proton-induced conformational changes and forms hydrogen bond networks that ensure prompt proton removal from the catalytic site of water oxidation, i.e. the Mn4 CaO5 cluster. This work reports the purification and characterization of heterologously expressed PsbO from green algae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and two isoforms from the higher plant Solanum tuberosum (PsbO1 and PsbO2). A comparison to the spinach PsbO reveals striking similarities in intrinsic protein fluorescence and CD spectra, reflecting the near-identical secondary structure of the proteins from algae and higher plants. Titration experiments using the hydrophobic fluorescence probe ANS revealed that eukaryotic PsbO proteins exhibit acid-base hysteresis. This hysteresis is a dynamic effect accompanied by changes in the accessibility of the protein's hydrophobic core and is not due to reversible oligomerization or unfolding of the PsbO protein. These results confirm the hypothesis that pH-dependent dynamic behavior at physiological pH ranges is a common feature of PsbO proteins and causes reversible opening and closing of their ß-barrel domain in response to the fluctuating acidity of the thylakoid lumen.

Molecular mechanism of ATP versus GTP selectivity of adenylate kinase.

Enzymatic substrate selectivity is critical for the precise control of metabolic pathways. In cases where chemically related substrates are present inside cells, robust mechanisms of substrate selectivity are required. Here, we report the mechanism utilized for catalytic ATP versus GTP selectivity during adenylate kinase (Adk) -mediated phosphorylation of AMP. Using NMR spectroscopy we found that while Adk adopts a catalytically competent and closed structural state in complex with ATP, the enzyme is arrested in a catalytically inhibited and open state in complex with GTP. X-ray crystallography experiments revealed that the interaction interfaces supporting ATP and GTP recognition, in part, are mediated by coinciding residues. The mechanism provides an atomic view on how the cellular GTP pool is protected from Adk turnover, which is important because GTP has many specialized cellular functions. In further support of this mechanism, a structure-function analysis enabled by synthesis of ATP analogs suggests that a hydrogen bond between the adenine moiety and the backbone of the enzyme is vital for ATP selectivity. The importance of the hydrogen bond for substrate selectivity is likely general given the conservation of its location and orientation across the family of eukaryotic protein kinases.

Characterization of the Ruler Protein Interaction Interface on the Substrate Specificity Switch Protein in the Yersinia Type III Secretion System.

Many pathogenic Gram-negative bacteria use the type III secretion system (T3SS) to deliver effector proteins into eukaryotic host cells. In Yersinia, the switch to secretion of effector proteins is induced first after intimate contact between the bacterium and its eukaryotic target cell has been established, and the T3SS proteins YscP and YscU play a central role in this process. Here we identify the molecular details of the YscP binding site on YscU by means of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. The binding interface is centered on the C-terminal domain of YscU. Disrupting the YscU-YscP interaction by introducing point mutations at the interaction interface significantly reduced the secretion of effector proteins and HeLa cell cytotoxicity. Interestingly, the binding of YscP to the slowly self-cleaving YscU variant P264A conferred significant protection against autoproteolysis. The YscP-mediated inhibition of YscU autoproteolysis suggests that the cleavage event may act as a timing switch in the regulation of early versus late T3SS substrates. We also show that YscUC binds to the inner rod protein YscI with a dissociation constant (Kd ) of 3.8 µm and with 1:1 stoichiometry. The significant similarity among different members of the YscU, YscP, and YscI families suggests that the protein-protein interactions discussed in this study are also relevant for other T3SS-containing Gram-negative bacteria.

Urea-Dependent Adenylate Kinase Activation following Redistribution of Structural States.

Proteins are often functionally dependent on conformational changes that allow them to sample structural states that are sparsely populated in the absence of a substrate or binding partner. The distribution of such structural microstates is governed by their relative stability, and the kinetics of their interconversion is governed by the magnitude of associated activation barriers. Here, we have explored the interplay among structure, stability, and function of a selected enzyme, adenylate kinase (Adk), by monitoring changes in its enzymatic activity in response to additions of urea. For this purpose we used a 31P NMR assay that was found useful for heterogeneous sample compositions such as presence of urea. It was found that Adk is activated at low urea concentrations whereas higher urea concentrations unfolds and thereby deactivates the enzyme. From a quantitative analysis of chemical shifts, it was found that urea redistributes preexisting structural microstates, stabilizing a substrate-bound open state at the expense of a substrate-bound closed state. Adk is rate-limited by slow opening of substrate binding domains and the urea-dependent redistribution of structural states is consistent with a model where the increased activity results from an increased rate-constant for domain opening. In addition, we also detected a strong correlation between the catalytic free energy and free energy of substrate (ATP) binding, which is also consistent with the catalytic model for Adk. From a general perspective, it appears that urea can be used to modulate conformational equilibria of folded proteins toward more expanded states for cases where a sizeable difference in solvent-accessible surface area exists between the states involved. This effect complements the action of osmolytes, such as trimethylamine N-oxide, that favor more compact protein states.

Protein dynamics and function from solution state NMR spectroscopy.

It is well-established that dynamics are central to protein function; their importance is implicitly acknowledged in the principles of the Monod, Wyman and Changeux model of binding cooperativity, which was originally proposed in 1965. Nowadays the concept of protein dynamics is formulated in terms of the energy landscape theory, which can be used to understand protein folding and conformational changes in proteins. Because protein dynamics are so important, a key to understanding protein function at the molecular level is to design experiments that allow their quantitative analysis. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is uniquely suited for this purpose because major advances in theory, hardware, and experimental methods have made it possible to characterize protein dynamics at an unprecedented level of detail. Unique features of NMR include the ability to quantify dynamics (i) under equilibrium conditions without external perturbations, (ii) using many probes simultaneously, and (iii) over large time intervals. Here we review NMR techniques for quantifying protein dynamics on fast (ps-ns), slow (µs-ms), and very slow (s-min) time scales. These techniques are discussed with reference to some major discoveries in protein science that have been made possible by NMR spectroscopy.

Realtime (31)P†NMR Investigation on the Catalytic Behavior of the Enzyme Adenylate kinase in the Matrix of a Switchable Ionic Liquid.

The integration of highly efficient enzymatic catalysis with the solvation properties of ionic liquids for an environmentally friendly and efficient use of raw materials such as wood requires fundamental knowledge about the influence of relevant ionic liquids on enzymes. Switchable ionic liquids (SIL) are promising candidates for implementation of enzymatic treatments of raw materials. One industrially interesting SIL is constituted by monoethanol amine (MEA) and 1,8-diazabicyclo-[5.4.0]-undec-7-ene (DBU) formed with sulfur dioxide (SO2) as the coupling media (DBU-SO2-MEASIL). It has the ability to solubilize the matrix of lignocellulosic biomass while leaving the cellulose backbone intact. Using a novel (31)P NMR-based real-time assay we show that this SIL is compatible with enzymatic catalysis because a model enzyme, adenylate kinase, retains its activity in up to at least 25 wt % of DBU-SO2-MEASIL. Thus this SIL appears suitable for, for example, enzymatic degradation of hemicellulose.

Atomic-level structure characterization of an ultrafast folding mini-protein denatured state.

Atomic-level analyses of non-native protein ensembles constitute an important aspect of protein folding studies to reach a more complete understanding of how proteins attain their native form exhibiting biological activity. Previously, formation of hydrophobic clusters in the 6 M urea-denatured state of an ultrafast folding mini-protein known as TC5b from both photo-CIDNP NOE transfer studies and FCS measurements was observed. Here, we elucidate the structural properties of this mini-protein denatured in 6 M urea performing (15)N NMR relaxation studies together with a thorough NOE analysis. Even though our results demonstrate that no elements of secondary structure persist in the denatured state, the heterogeneous distribution of R(2) rate constants together with observing pronounced heteronuclear NOEs along the peptide backbone reveals specific regions of urea-denatured TC5b exhibiting a high degree of structural rigidity more frequently observed for native proteins. The data are complemented with studies on two TC5b point mutants to verify the importance of hydrophobic interactions for fast folding. Our results corroborate earlier findings of a hydrophobic cluster present in urea-denatured TC5b comprising both native and non-native contacts underscoring their importance for ultra rapid folding. The data assist in finding ways of interpreting the effects of pre-existing native and/or non-native interactions on the ultrafast folding of proteins; a fact, which might have to be considered when defining the starting conditions for molecular dynamics simulation studies of protein folding.

Determining the absolute configuration of (+)-mefloquine HCl, the side-effect-reducing enantiomer of the antimalaria drug Lariam.

Even though the important antimalaria drug rac-erythro-mefloquine HCl has been on the market as Lariam for decades, the absolute configurations of its enantiomers have not been determined conclusively. This is needed, since the (-) enantiomer is believed to cause adverse side effects in malaria treatment resulting from binding to the adenosine receptor in the human brain. Since there are conflicting assignments based on enantioselective synthesis and anomalous X-ray diffraction, we determined the absolute configuration using a combination of NMR, optical rotatory dispersion (ORD), and circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy together with density functional theory calculations. First, structural models of erythro-mefloquine HCl compatible with NMR-derived (3)J(HH) scalar couplings, (15)N chemical shifts, rotational Overhauser effects, and residual dipolar couplings were constructed. Second, we calculated ORD and CD spectra of the structural models and compared the calculated data with the experimental values. The experimental results for (-)-erythro-mefloquine HCl matched our calculated chiroptical data for the 11R,12S model. Accordingly, we conclude that the assignment of 11R,12S to (-)-erythro-mefloquine HCl is correct.

Structure and Mode-of-Action of the Two-Peptide (Class-IIb) Bacteriocins.

This review focuses on the structure and mode-of-action of the two-peptide (class-IIb) bacteriocins that consist of two different peptides whose genes are next to each other in the same operon. Optimal antibacterial activity requires the presence of both peptides in about equal amounts. The two peptides are synthesized as preforms that contain a 15-30 residue double-glycine-type N-terminal leader sequence that is cleaved off at the C-terminal side of two glycine residues by a dedicated ABC-transporter that concomitantly transfers the bacteriocin peptides across cell membranes. Two-peptide bacteriocins render the membrane of sensitive bacteria permeable to a selected group of ions, indicating that the bacteriocins form or induce the formation of pores that display specificity with respect to the transport of molecules. Based on structure-function studies, it has been proposed that the two peptides of two-peptide bacteriocins form a membrane-penetrating helix-helix structure involving helix-helix-interacting GxxxG-motifs that are present in all characterized two-peptide bacteriocins. It has also been suggested that the membrane-penetrating helix-helix structure interacts with an integrated membrane protein, thereby triggering a conformational alteration in the protein, which in turn causes membrane-leakage. This proposed mode-of-action is similar to the mode-of-action of the pediocin-like (class-IIa) bacteriocins and lactococcin A (a class-IId bacteriocin), which bind to a membrane-embedded part of the mannose phosphotransferase permease in a manner that causes membrane-leakage and cell death.

Structure analysis of the two-peptide bacteriocin lactococcin G by introducing D-amino acid residues.

The importance of 3D structuring in the N- and C-terminal ends of the two peptides (39-mer LcnG-alpha and 35-mer LcnG-beta) that constitute the two-peptide bacteriocin lactococcin G was analysed by replacing residues in the end regions with the corresponding D-isomeric residues. When assayed for antibacterial activity in combination with the complementary wild-type peptide, LcnG-alpha with four D-residues in its C-terminal region and LcnG-beta with four d-residues in either its N- or its C-terminal region were relatively active (two- to 20-fold reduction in activity). 3D structuring of the C-terminal region in LcnG-alpha and the C- and N-terminal regions in LcnG-beta is thus not particularly critical for retaining antibacterial activity, indicating that the 3D structure of these regions is not vital for interpeptide interactions or for interactions between the peptides and cellular components. The 3D structure of the N-terminal region in LcnG-alpha may be more important, as LcnG-alpha with four N-terminal D-residues was the least active of these four peptides (10- to 100-fold reduction in activity). The results are consistent with a proposed structural model of lactococcin G in which LcnG-alpha and -beta form a transmembrane parallel helix-helix structure involving approximately 20 residues in each peptide, starting near the N terminus of LcnG-alpha and at about residue 13 in LcnG-beta. Upon expressing the lactococcin G immunity protein, sensitive target cells became resistant to all of these D-residue-containing peptides. The end regions of the two lactococcin G peptides are consequently not involved in essential structure-dependent interactions with the immunity protein. The relatively high activity of most of the D-residue-containing peptides suggests that bacteriocins with increased resistance to exopeptidases may be generated by replacing their N- and C-terminal residues with d-residues.

Three-dimensional structure of the two-peptide bacteriocin plantaricin JK.

The three-dimensional structures of the two peptides, PlnJ and PlnK, that constitutes the two-peptide bacteriocin plantaricin JK have been solved in water/TFE and water/DPC-micellar solutions using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. PlnJ, a 25 residue peptide, has an N-terminal amphiphilic alpha-helix between Trp-3 and Tyr-15. The 32 residues long PlnK forms a central amphiphilic alpha-helix between Gly-9 and Leu-24. Measurements of the effect on anti-microbial activity of single glycine replacements in PlnJ and PlnK show that Gly-13 and Gly-17 in both peptides are very sensitive, giving more than a 100-fold reduction in activity when large residues replace glycine. In variants where other glycine residues, Gly-20 in PlnJ and Gly-7, Gly-9, Gly-24 and Gly-25 in PlnK, were replaced, the activity was reduced less than 10-fold. It is proposed that the detrimental effect on activity when exchanging Gly-13 and Gly-17 in PlnJ and PlnK is a result of reduced ability of the two peptides to interact through the GxxxG-motifs constituting Gly-13 and Gly-17.

Three-dimensional structure of the two peptides that constitute the two-peptide bacteriocin plantaricin EF.

The three-dimensional structures of the two peptides plantaricin E (plnE; 33 residues) and plantaricin F (plnF; 34 residues) constituting the two-peptide bacteriocin plantaricin EF (plnEF) have been determined by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy in the presence of DPC micelles. PlnE has an N-terminal alpha-helix (residues 10-21), and a C-terminal alpha-helix-like structure (residues 25-31). PlnF has a long central alpha-helix (residues 7-32) with a kink of 38+/-7 degrees at Pro20. There is some flexibility in the helix in the kink region. Both helices in plnE are amphiphilic, while the helix in plnF is polar in its N-terminal half and amphiphilic in its C-terminal half. The alpha-helical content obtained by NMR spectroscopy is in agreement with CD studies. PlnE has two GxxxG motifs which are putative helix-helix interaction motifs, one at residues 5 to 9 and one at residues 20 to 24, while plnF has one such motif at residues 30 to 34. The peptides are flexible in these GxxxG regions. It is suggested that the two peptides lie parallel in a staggered fashion relative to each other and interact through helix-helix interactions involving the GxxxG motifs.

Three-dimensional structure of the two peptides that constitute the two-peptide bacteriocin lactococcin G.

The three-dimensional structures of the two peptides, lactococcin G-alpha (LcnG-alpha; contains 39 residues) and lactococcin G-beta (LcnG-beta, contains 35 residues), that constitute the two-peptide bacteriocin lactococcin G (LcnG) have been determined by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy in the presence of DPC micelles and TFE. In DPC, LcnG-alpha has an N-terminal alpha-helix (residues 3-21) that contains a GxxxG helix-helix interaction motif (residues 7-11) and a less well defined C-terminal alpha-helix (residues 24-34), and in between (residues 18-22) there is a second somewhat flexible GxxxG-motif. Its structure in TFE was similar. In DPC, LcnG-beta has an N-terminal alpha-helix (residues 6-19). The region from residues 20 to 35, which also contains a flexible GxxxG-motif (residues 18-22), appeared to be fairly unstructured in DPC. In the presence of TFE, however, the region between and including residues 23 and 32 formed a well defined alpha-helix. The N-terminal helix between and including residues 6 and 19 seen in the presence of DPC, was broken at residues 8 and 9 in the presence of TFE. The N-terminal helices, both in LcnG-alpha and -beta, are amphiphilic. We postulate that LcnG-alpha and -beta have a parallel orientation and interact through helix-helix interactions involving the first GxxxG (residues 7-11) motif in LcnG-alpha and the one (residues 18-22) in LcnG-beta, and that they thus lie in a staggered fashion relative to each other.