Effectiveness of a group diabetes education programme in under-served communities in South Africa: a pragmatic cluster randomized controlled trial.

AIM: To evaluate the effectiveness of group education, led by health promoters using a guiding style, for people with type 2 diabetes in public sector community health centres in Cape Town. METHODS: This was a pragmatic clustered randomized controlled trial with 17 randomly selected intervention and 17 control sites. A total of 860 patients with type 2 diabetes, regardless of therapy used, were recruited from the control sites and 710 were recruited from the intervention sites. The control sites offered usual care, while the intervention sites offered a total of four monthly sessions of group diabetes education led by a health promoter. Participants were measured at baseline and 12 months later. Primary outcomes were diabetes self-care activities, 5% weight loss and a 1% reduction in HbA(1c) levels. Secondary outcomes were self-efficacy, locus of control, mean blood pressure, mean weight loss, mean waist circumference, mean HbA1c and mean total cholesterol levels and quality of life. RESULTS: A total of 422 (59.4%) participants in the intervention group did not attend any education sessions. No significant improvement was found in any of the primary or secondary outcomes, apart from a significant reduction in mean systolic (-4.65 mmHg, 95% CI 9.18 to -0.12; P = 0.04) and diastolic blood pressure (-3.30 mmHg, 95% CI -5.35 to -1.26; P = 0.002). Process evaluation suggested that there were problems with finding suitable space for group education in these under-resourced settings, with patient attendance and with full adoption of a guiding style by the health promoters. CONCLUSION: The reported effectiveness of group diabetes education offered by more highly trained professionals, in well-resourced settings, was not replicated in the present study, although the reduction in participants' mean blood pressure is likely to be of clinical significance.

Development and evaluation by a cluster randomised trial of a psychosocial intervention in children and teenagers experiencing diabetes: the DEPICTED study.

OBJECTIVE: To develop and evaluate a health-care communication training programme to help diabetes health-care professionals (HCPs) counsel their patients more skilfully, particularly in relation to behaviour change. DESIGN: The HCP training was assessed using a pragmatic, cluster randomised controlled trial. The primary and secondary analyses were intention-to-treat comparisons of outcomes using multilevel modelling to allow for cluster (service) and individual effects, and involved two-level linear models. SETTING: Twenty-six UK paediatric diabetes services. PARTICIPANTS: The training was delivered to HCPs (doctors, nurses, dietitians and psychologists) working in paediatric diabetes services and the effectiveness of this training was measured in 693 children aged 4-15 years and families after 1 year (95.3% follow-up). INTERVENTIONS: A blended learning programme was informed by a systematic review of the literature, telephone and questionnaire surveys of professional practice, focus groups with children and parents, experimental consultations and three developmental workshops involving a stakeholder group. The programme focused on agenda-setting, flexible styles of communication (particularly guiding) and a menu of strategies using web-based training and practical workshops. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The primary trial outcome was a change in glycosylated haemoglobin (HbA1c) levels between the start and finish of a 12-month study period. Secondary trial outcomes included change in quality of life, other clinical [including body mass index (BMI)] and psychosocial measures (assessed at participant level as listed above) and cost (assessed at service level). In addition, patient details (HbA1c levels, height, weight, BMI, insulin regimen), health service contacts and patient-borne costs were recorded at each clinic visit, along with details of who patients consulted with, for how long, and whether or not patients consulted on their own at each visit. Patients and carers were also asked to complete an interim questionnaire assessing patient enablement (or feelings towards clinic visit for younger patients aged 7-10 years) at their first clinic visit following the start of the trial. The cost of the intervention included the cost of training intervention teams. RESULTS: Trained staff showed better skills than control subjects in agenda-setting and consultation strategies, which waned from 4 to 12 months. There was no effect on HbA1c levels (p = 0.5). Patients in intervention clinics experienced a loss of confidence in their ability to manage diabetes, whereas controls showed surprisingly reduced barriers (p = 0.03) and improved adherence (p = 0.05). Patients in intervention clinics reported short-term increased ability (p = 0.04) to cope with diabetes. Parents in the intervention arm experienced greater excitement (p = 0.03) about clinic visits and improved continuity of care (p = 0.01) without the adverse effects seen in their offspring. The mean cost of training was £13,145 per site or £2163 per trainee. There was no significant difference in total NHS costs (including training) between groups (p = 0.1). CONCLUSIONS: Diabetes HCPs can be trained to improve consultation skills, but these skills need reinforcing. Over 1 year, no benefits were seen in children, unlike parents, who may be better placed to support their offspring. Further modification of this training is required to improve outcomes that may need to be measured over a longer time to see effects. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Current Controlled Trials ISRCTN61568050. FUNDING: This project was funded by the NIHR Health Technology Assessment programme and will be published in full in Health Technology Assessment; Vol. 15, No. 29. See the HTA programme website for further project information.

Inside the fitness for work consultation: a qualitative study.

BACKGROUND: Evidence now suggests that work is generally good for physical and mental health and well-being. Worklessness for whatever reason can lead to poorer physical and mental health. The role of the general practitioner (GP) in the management of fitness for work is pivotal. AIMS: To understand the interaction between GP and patient in the fitness for work consultation. This study forms part of a larger research project to develop a learning programme for GPs around the fitness for work consultation based on behaviour change methodology. METHODS: A qualitative study set in South Wales. Structured discussion groups with seven GPs. Two sessions each lasting 3 h were conducted to explore the GP and patient interaction around the fitness for work consultation. Multiple methods were used to enhance engagement. Thematic analysis was used to analyse the data. RESULTS: Four major themes emerged from the meetings: role legitimacy, negotiation, managing the patient and managing the systems. Within these, subthemes emerged around role legitimacy. 'It's not my job', 'It's not what I trained for' and the 'shifting agenda' Negotiation was likened to 'A polite tug of war' and subthemes around decision making, managing the agenda and dealing with uncertainty emerged. CONCLUSIONS: This study starts to unravel the complexity of the fitness for work consultation. It illustrates how GPs struggle with the 'importance' of their role and 'confidence' in managing the fitness for work consultation. It addresses the skillful negotiation that is required to manage the consultation effectively.

[Diagnosis and treatment of infectious pharyngeal inflammation].

Symptoms of viral and/or streptococcal infectious pharyngitis are of interest in the context of different therapeutic strategies. This study involved 3 family medicine clinics, one emergency service department, and 694 patients. Streptococcal pharyngitis occurred in 24% of the adult patients and in 29% of all the patients. The remaining ones had acute viral pharyngitis or a mixed viral/bacterial infection. Medicamentous therapy given to 98% of the patients included local antibiotics (42%), systemic antibacterial monotherapy (12%), and combined antibiotic therapy (44%). Lysozime-containing preparations (larypront, dequalar, etc.) recommended for pathogenetic therapy had the active ingredient in the form of a dequalinium complex to deliver lysozime to pharyngeal mucosa. The frequency of streptococcal infection in patients with secondary sore throat receiving the combined treatment was twice lower (12%) than in the general group. The strategy of therapy was the same as in primary sore throat.

Inside the routine general practice consultation: an observational study of consultations for sore throats.

OBJECTIVES: The aims of this study were to examine how GPs manage the consultation for upper resiratory tract infections (URTIs) and the prescribing of antibiotics, to understand what skills and strategies are used in managing URTIs without antibiotics, and to note evidence of pressure on doctors to prescribe and whether there are signs of overt disagreement about prescribing in the consultation. METHODS: A qualitative analysis of audiotaped consultations was carried out. The setting was a general practice in South Wales and the subjects were five GPs and 29 parents presenting children with URTIs over a 2-week period. The main outcome measures were skills and strategies identified from audiotapes of consultations. RESULTS: This group of GPs used a set of readily identifiable consulting skills for managing the consultation without prescribing. Their consultations had a highly routinized quality. There was little evidence of either conflict or overt pressure from parents to prescribe. The word 'antibiotics' was seldom mentioned. Clinicians did not elicit patient expectations for receiving antibiotics. CONCLUSIONS: Doctors use a set of readily identifiable skills in managing the URTI consultation. Avoiding the prescribing of antibiotics is not necessarily a simple and straightforward matter. Since patients apparently want antibiotics less than anticipated, eliciting expectations might be a way of reducing prescribing and broadening the approach to meeting patient needs. Whether doctors can adjust their routinized consulting patterns in the time-limited context of general practice remains an open question.

Antibiotics and shared decision-making in primary care.

Antibiotics are often prescribed to patients with respiratory tract infections who are unlikely to benefit. Models of physician-patient interaction may help understanding of this problem and inform the design of communication skills interventions to enhance appropriate prescribing. The 'paternalistic model' of the consultation remains common in the setting of acute respiratory tract infections. However, the four assumptions that could support this model are not valid for most of these patients, because: best treatment is controversial; management is inconsistent; physicians are not in the best position to evaluate trade-offs between management options without understanding patients' perspectives; and many pressures (apart from patients' agendas) intrude into the consultation. One alternative is the 'informed model' of consulting, but this does not take society's interests into account. The 'shared decision-making model', however, provides a framework for addressing both clinicians' and patients' agendas, and could guide the development and evaluation of specific consultation strategies to promote more appropriate use of antibiotics in primary care.

A case study of nurse management of upper respiratory tract infections in general practice.

BACKGROUND: Nurses increasingly manage acute illness in United Kingdom (UK) general practice. Few data exist about patients routinely consulting with these nurses. There are concerns that providing this additional service will lower thresholds for consulting with an overall increase in workload. Upper respiratory tract infection (URTI) is the commonest reason for consulting. Inappropriate antibiotics promote resistant bacteria. Nurse management of URTI is an ideal opportunity to promote self-care and nonantibiotic management. AIMS: To describe the effects of a specially trained practice nurse managing URTI in a general practice in Cardiff, UK. METHODS: Descriptive study. RESULTS: Data were collected on 132 patients consulting with the nurse. We also collected data on 234 patients consulting general practitioners (GPs) in the same practice. Patients seen by the nurse were younger and less likely to be given antibiotics at the time of their index illness than those who saw GPs (7% vs. 93%; P < 0.001). During the year following the consultation with the nurse, patients consulted slightly less often and received antibiotics for URTI less often compared with the year preceding this consultation (P=0.02). Their consultation rate for all conditions did not change. The consultation rates for URTI of the patients managed by the GPs remained constant and consultations for all conditions increased (P < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Nurse management of URTI did not lower patients' threshold for future consulting, and patients who saw her were prescribed antibiotics less often.

Motivational interviewing in health care settings. Opportunities and limitations.

Motivational interviewing (MI) has been well studied in specialist settings. There has been considerable interest in applying MI to community health care settings. Such settings represent a significant departure from the more traditional, specialist settings in which MI has been developed and tested. The purpose of this paper is to provide a brief overview of MI and to identify and discuss the key issues that are likely to arise when adapting this approach to health care and public health settings. This paper provides an overview of important issues to consider in adapting an effective counseling strategy to new settings, and is intended to begin a dialogue about the use of MI in community health care settings.

Judging the 'weight of evidence' in systematic reviews: introducing rigour into the qualitative overview stage by assessing Signal and Noise.

The 'weight of evidence' in a topic area can be judged by assessing the 'Signal' from available research publications and tempering the importance attached by the level of 'Noise' (the inverse of methodological quality). This assessment process has validity and reliability and can be applied to the 'qualitative overview' stage of systematic reviews. This enables the important themes and areas of relevance to the research question to be identified. Important findings from individual papers may also be identified providing further information which may not be evident from quantitative analysis. The findings from these more qualitative stages of analysis complement, but do not replace, quantitative analysis.

Can nurses learn to let go? issues arising from an intervention designed to improve patients' involvement in their own care.

The aim of the paper was to explore the reasons behind a perplexing observation that an intervention designed to alter professional behaviour in general practice consultations in South Wales was poorly sustained despite initial enthusiasm among the nurses. Nurses' baseline and continuing responses to the new approach with patients with non-insulin dependent diabetes are described, drawing on observations and interviews with the 18 practice nurses in the 15 experimental practices. The nurses fell into two groups: those showing greater understanding of the principles underlying the approach and a more reflective attitude to their work; and those who adapted the simple technology provided to their usual consultation style. This variation was related to their perception of their role and their attitudes to diabetic care, especially the challenge posed by the 'difficult patient'. They were noticeably less willing to allow the patient freedom to decide what to do once diabetic control was deteriorating according to biochemical measures. It is concluded that the failure of the nurses to sustain behaviour change over time stems from a basic dilemma, namely, what is the extent of my responsibility and how ought I to discharge it? There is scope for more research into professional perspectives on chronic care, the strategies they use to manage patients and to cope with their own feelings, and the implications of these strategies for patients.

Understanding the culture of prescribing: qualitative study of general practitioners' and patients' perceptions of antibiotics for sore throats.

OBJECTIVES: To better understand reasons for antibiotics being prescribed for sore throats despite well known evidence that they are generally of little help. DESIGN: Qualitative study with semi-structured interviews. SETTING: General practices in South Wales. SUBJECTS: 21 general practitioners and 17 of their patients who had recently consulted for a sore throat or upper respiratory tract infection. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Subjects' experience of management of the illness, patients' expectations, beliefs about antibiotic treatment for sore throats, and ideas for reducing prescribing. RESULTS: Doctors knew of the evidence for marginal effectiveness yet often prescribed for good relationships with patients. Possible patient benefit outweighed theoretical community risk from resistant bacteria. Most doctors found prescribing "against the evidence" uncomfortable and realised this probably increased workload. Explanations of the distinction between virus and bacterium often led to perceived confusion. Clinicians were divided on the value of leaflets and national campaigns, but several favoured patient empowerment for self care by other members of the primary care team. Patient expectations were seldom made explicit, and many were not met. A third of patients had a clear expectation for antibiotics, and mothers were more likely to accept non-antibiotic treatment for their children than for themselves. Satisfaction was not necessarily related to receiving antibiotics, with many seeking reassurance, further information, and pain relief. CONCLUSIONS: This prescribing decision is greatly influenced by considerations of the doctor-patient relationship. Consulting strategies that make patient expectations explicit without damaging relationships might reduce unwanted antibiotics. Repeating evidence for lack of effectiveness is unlikely to change doctors' prescribing, but information about risk to individual patients might. Emphasising positive aspects of non-antibiotic treatment and lack of efficacy in general might be helpful.

A randomized controlled trial of an intervention designed to improve the care given in general practice to Type II diabetic patients: patient outcomes and professional ability to change behaviour.

AIM: Our objective was to evaluate the effect of training in a patient-centred intervention for GPs and practice nurses on outcomes for patients with Type II diabetes. METHODS: We carried out a randomized controlled trial within general practices as the basis for randomization and a before-and-after design for measures of patient outcome. A parallel process study examined the use of the method by professionals. The study was carried out in 29 general practices in South Glamorgan who had participated for at least 2 years in a local scheme of audit and CME in relation to Type II diabetes care. The subjects were 252 Type II diabetic patients recruited by 15 experimental and 14 control practices. The main outcome measures were changes in glycosylated haemoglobin, patient satisfaction with care and treatment, functional health status and professional ability to apply the intervention. RESULTS: Professionals adopted the innovative method with enthusiasm, but after 2 years only 19% continued to apply the method systematically. The trial was, therefore, unable to demonstrate significant biochemical or functional improvements. This highlights the need to understand the factors associated with professional uptake and subsequent ability to sustain changes in behaviour. CONCLUSIONS: The efficacy of this behavioural intervention remains unproved, despite its acceptability to professional staff. Detailed and prolonged development and testing of behavioural interventions is an essential first step before embarking on randomized controlled trials which involve complex behavioural changes in professionals or patients.

Reducing antibiotics for respiratory tract symptoms in primary care: consolidating 'why' and considering 'how'.

We summarize recently published evidence showing that antibiotic treatment offers little or no benefit to most patients presenting with sore throats, acute otitis media, maxillary sinusitis, and acute bronchitis. Despite this research, the prescription of antibiotics for respiratory tract conditions is rising in Britain. This wastes money, encourages people to consult for self-limiting conditions, and causes bacteria to become resistant to antimicrobials. Ways of changing present practice are underresearched. Enhanced consulting skills, guidelines and monitoring strategies, patient education, and anti-inflammatory drugs for recurrent and chronic sufferers all hold promise.

Helping smokers make decisions: the enhancement of brief intervention for general medical practice.

Primary care clinicians are often encouraged by government agencies to intervene systematically with all smokers. Pressure of time and pessimism about their own efficacy and patients' capacity to change are some of the reasons why clinicians do not feel it is appropriate to always advise every patient about unhealthy behaviours. Developments in patient centred approaches to the consultation and progress in the addictions field suggest that new consulting methods could be constructed which are more satisfying than giving brief advice to change. The aim of this study was to develop a structured, teachable and acceptable intervention for clinicians to help patients consider their smoking during general medical consultations. Patient centred strategies derived from the stages of change model and motivational interviewing and its adaptations were explored in experimental consultations with 20 volunteer smokers. Feedback from them and from general practice registrars trained in the use of the method informed its development. Acceptability to clinicians was assessed by semi structured telephone interviews with 24 general practice registrars who participated in a randomised controlled trial assessing the effectiveness of the method. Anonymous, written questionnaires were also completed by 20 of the registrars who recruited ten or more patients into the trial. The method is described. Key components are: establishing rapport, assessing motivation and confidence, and then depending on the response, asking standard scaling questions, asking about pros and cons of smoking, non-judgmental information sharing, brainstorming solutions and negotiating attainable goals and follow-up. The clinicians used the method with a total of 270 smokers, taking an average of 9.69 min with each patient. Evaluation reveals that it is acceptable to the group of general practice registrars. Longer consultation time was seen as the main drawback. We conclude that acceptable methods for opportunistic health promotion can be developed by taking into account patient centred approaches to the consultation, developments from the addictions field and the practical problems faced by clinicians. The process can be further enhanced by considering feedback from those who are likely to receive and use the interventions.

Outcome studies of brief alcohol intervention in general practice: the problem of lost subjects.

AIMS: To identify the attrition rate of eligible subjects from the general practice brief intervention studies, reasons for attrition, and the potential bias arising from lost subjects. DESIGN: Review of all published trials of brief intervention for excessive drinkers in primary care settings. FINDINGS: The attrition rate of eligible subjects from the general practice brief intervention studies ranges from 44.3 to 83.2% (mean 70.6%). The potential bias introduced by the characteristics of subjects available and not available for research is not adequately addressed. Where there is evidence, subjects unavailable for study or those lost to follow-up usually show different characteristics (e.g. younger, heavier drinkers, less educated) from those completing the study. CONCLUSIONS: Study populations in general practice-based brief alcohol interventions may have been those most susceptible to intervention. This suggests caution is appropriate in generalizing from brief intervention study results to routine primary care.

Beyond CAGE. A brief clinical approach after detection of substance abuse.

Generalist physicians should incorporate alcohol and drug abuse detection and brief intervention in the care of their patients. A suggestion of alcohol or drug abuse or a positive response to the CAGE questions deserves further assessment such as clarification about adverse consequences, inquiry about loss of control, determination of the patient's perception of the substance use, and an assessment of the patient's readiness to change behavior. Brief intervention with the patient in the clinical setting about alcohol or drug use can be effective. Motivational interviewing, a directive, patient-centered counseling style for enhancing motivation for change, can make brief interventions more effective by incorporating the patient's readiness to address alcohol or drug use. A useful clinical approach is presented that is tailored to the patient's stage of readiness to change alcohol or drug abuse behavior.

Professional responses to innovation in clinical method: diabetes care and negotiating skills.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the responses of family doctors and nurses to applying an innovative clinical technique and technology in the context of a randomised controlled trial. DESIGN: Multi-faceted descriptive analysis of professional responses in the experimental arm of the trial. SUBJECTS AND SETTING: 29 family practices involving 30 doctors and 33 nurses over a 3-year time scale and 200 patients with type II diabetes. INTERVENTION: A new visual agenda-setting technology and other visual aids applied using the techniques of negotiation and motivational interviewing. OUTCOME MEASURES: Uptake of training, use of the method, group discussions, willingness to accept consultation recordings. RESULTS: 100% of clinicians welcomed two or more formal training sessions. The agenda-setting technology was used frequently by 71% of clinicians and occasionally by a further 22%. High levels of engagement with the method occurred among nurses but many doctors also reported benefits. CONCLUSIONS: Family doctors and nurses in Wales have found a new technology to facilitate negotiation in diabetes consultation acceptable and useful. Analysis of outcome is now awaited.

The development of a brief scale to measure outcome expectations of reduced consumption among excessive drinkers.

This paper describes the development of a brief scale to measure outcome expectations of reduced consumption among excessive drinkers (low dependence drinkers consuming more than recommended levels). This work, which forms part of a larger matching study of brief intervention, is based on the general proposition that outcome expectations of reduced consumption might be more important than previously thought for understanding and predicting behavior change. Twelve outcomes, derived from interviews with excessive drinkers, formed the basis of a questionnaire, the Excessive Drinker Outcome Expectations Scale (EDOES), which examined not only the valence of each outcome, but a comparison between expectations of reduced consumption versus drinking usual amounts. The questionnaire was administered to 235 hospitalized excessive drinkers. Principal components analysis produced two scales, reflecting the costs and benefits of change. The questionnaire proved to have acceptable levels of test-retest reliability and predictive validity. Analyses of construct validity revealed that outcome expectations of reduced consumption were increasingly positive across stages of change.