Absorption and Fluorescence Emission Investigations on Supramolecular Assemblies of Tetrakis-(4-sulfonatophenyl)porphyrin and Graphene Quantum Dots.

The one-pot synthesis of N-doped graphene quantum dots (GQDs), capped with a positively charged polyamine (trien), has been realized through a microwave-assisted pyrolysis on solid L-glutamic acid and trien in equimolar amounts. The resulting positively charged nanoparticles are strongly emissive in aqueous solutions and are stable for months. The interaction with the anionic tetrakis(4-sulphonatophenyl)porphyrin (TPPS4) has been investigated at neutral and mild acidic pH using a combination of UV/vis absorption spectroscopy together with static and time-resolved fluorescence emission. At pH = 7, the experimental evidence points to the formation of a supramolecular adduct mainly stabilized by electrostatic interactions. The fluorescence emission of the porphyrin is substantially quenched while GQDs remain still emissive. On decreasing the pH, protonation of TPPS4 leads to formation of porphyrin J-aggregates through the intermediacy of the charged quantum dots.

A Kinetic Investigation of the Supramolecular Chiral Self-Assembling Process of Cationic Organometallic (2,2':6',2″-terpyridine)methylplatinum(II) Complexes with Poly(L-glutamic Acid).

The cationic platinum(II) organometallic complex [Pt(terpy)Me]+ (terpy = 2,2':6',2″-terpyridine) at mild acidic pH interacts with poly(L-glutamic acid) (L-PGA) in its α-helix conformation, affording chiral supramolecular adducts. Their kinetics of formation have been investigated in detail as a function of the concentrations of both reagents and changing pH, ionic strength, the length of the polymeric scaffold and temperature. After a very fast early stage, the kinetic traces have been analyzed as three consecutive steps, suggesting a mechanism based on the electrostatic fast formation of a not-organized aggregate that subsequently evolves through different rearrangements to form the eventual supramolecular adduct. A model for this species has been proposed based on (i) the attractive electrostatic interaction of the cationic platinum(II) complexes and the polyelectrolyte and (ii) the π-stacking interactions acting among the [Pt(terpy)Me]+ units.

Recommendations on the Use of Multiple Labels in Human Mass Balance Studies.

The administration of radiolabeled drug candidates is considered the gold standard in absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion studies for small-molecule drugs since it allows facile and accurate quantification of parent drug, metabolites, and total drug-related material independent of the compound structure. The choice of the position of the radiolabel, typically 14C or 3H, is critical to obtain relevant information. Sometimes, a biotransformation reaction may lead to cleavage of a part of the molecule. As a result, only the radiolabeled portion can be followed, and information on the fate of the nonlabeled metabolite may be lost. Synthesis and administration of two or more radiolabeled versions of the parent drug as a mixture or in separate studies may resolve this issue but comes with additional challenges. In this paper, we address the questions that may be considered to help make the right choice whether to use a single or multiple radiolabel approach and discuss the pros and cons of different multiple-labeling strategies that can be taken as well as alternative methods that allow the nonlabeled part of the molecule to be followed. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Radiolabeled studies are the gold standard in drug metabolism research, but molecules can undergo cleavage with loss of the label. This often results in discussions around potential use of multiple labels, which seem to be occurring with increased frequency since an increasing proportion of the small-molecule drugs are tending towards larger molecular weights. This review provides insight and decision criteria in considering a multiple-label approach as well as pros and cons of different strategies that can be followed.

Interaction of Aromatic Amino Acids with Metal Complexes of Tetrakis-(4-Sulfonatophenyl)Porphyrin.

The interaction of a series of metal derivatives of 5, 10, 15, 20-tetrakis(4-sulfonato-phenyl)porphyrin (MTPPS4, M = Cu(II), Pt(II), Ni(II), Zn(II) and Co(II)), including the metal free porphyrin (TPPS4), with the aromatic amino acids L-tryptophan (L-Trp), L-and D-phenylalanine (L-and D-Phe) and L-histidine (L-His) have been investigated through UV/Vis spectroscopy. The amino acid L-serine (L-Ser) has been included as reference compound. The spectroscopic changes induced by adding the amino acids have been exploited to evaluate the extent of interaction between the molecular components in the supramolecular adducts. The binding constants have been estimated for most of the investigated systems, assuming a simple 1:1 equilibrium. The bathochromic shifts of the B-bands, the extent of hypochromicity and the binding constants have been analyzed through two chemical descriptors. All the data point to the important role played by the steric hindrance introduced by axial ligands coordinated to the metal ions and to the degree of hydrophobicity and size of the aromatic moiety in the amino acids.

Metabolite Bioanalysis in Drug Development: Recommendations from the IQ Consortium Metabolite Bioanalysis Working Group.

The intent of this perspective is to share the recommendations of the International Consortium for Innovation and Quality in Pharmaceutical Development Metabolite Bioanalysis Working Group on the fit-for-purpose metabolite bioanalysis in support of drug development and registration. This report summarizes the considerations for the trigger, timing, and rigor of bioanalysis in the various assessments to address unique challenges due to metabolites, with respect to efficacy and safety, which may arise during drug development from investigational new drug (IND) enabling studies, and phase I, phase II, and phase III clinical trials to regulatory submission. The recommended approaches ensure that important drug metabolites are identified in a timely manner and properly characterized for efficient drug development.

Non-Labeled, Stable Labeled, or Radiolabelled Approaches for Provision of Intravenous Pharmacokinetics in Humans: A Discussion Piece.

A review of the use of microdoses and isotopic microtracers for clinical intravenous pharmacokinetic (i.v. PK) data provision is presented. The extent of application of the varied approaches available and the relative merits of each are highlighted with the aim of assisting practitioners in making informed decisions on the most scientifically appropriate design to adopt for any given new drug in development. It is envisaged that significant efficiencies will be realized as i.v. PK data in humans becomes more routinely available for suitable assets in early development, than has been the case prior to the last decade.

Enhancement of the Rates for Insertion of Zinc(II) Ions into a Cationic Porphyrin Catalyzed by Poly(glutamate).

The self-assembly of porphyrins onto polyelectrolytes could lead to interesting changes in their reactivity with respect to the bulk solution. Here, we investigated the kinetics of Zn2+ incorporation into tetra-cationic water-soluble 5,10,15,20-tetrakis-(N-methylpyridinium-4-yl)porphyrin (TMpyP(4)) in the presence of poly(L-glutamic acid) (PGA) in a pH range from 4 to 6.5. Under these conditions, the porphyrin electrostatically interacted with the polymer, which gradually switched from an α-helical to a random coil structure. The profile of the logarithm of the observed rate constant (kobs) versus the pH was sigmoidal with an inflection point close to the pH of the conformation transition for PGA. At a pH of 5.4, when PGA was in its highly charged random coil conformation, an almost 1000-fold increase in the reaction rates was observed. An increase in the ionic strength of the bulk solution led to a decrease in the metal insertion rates. The role of the charged matrix was explained in terms of its ability to assemble both reagents in proximity, in agreement with the theory of counter-ion condensation around polyelectrolytes in an aqueous solution.

Investigation of J-Aggregates of 2,3,7,8,12,13,17,18-Octabromo-5,10,15,20-tetrakis(4-sulfonatophenyl) Porphyrin in Aqueous Solutions.

The highly distorted water-soluble 2,3,7,8,12,13,17,18-octabromo-5,10,15,20-tetrakis(4-sulfonatophenyl)porphyrin (Br8TPPS44-) is readily protonated under acidic pH, forming the diacid H2Br8TPPS42- and subsequently the zwitterionic H4Br8TPPS4, which eventually evolves into J-aggregates. These latter species exhibit a relevant bathochromic shift with respect to the monomer with a quite sharp band due to motional narrowing. The depolarization ratio measured in resonant light scattering spectra allows estimating a tilt angle of ~20° of the porphyrins in the J-aggregate. The kinetic parameters are obtained by applying a model based on the initial slow nucleation step, leading to a nucleus containing m monomers, followed by fast autocatalytic growth. The kc values for this latter step increase on decreasing the acid concentration and on increasing the porphyrin concentration, with a strong power-law dependence. No spontaneous symmetry breaking or transfer of chirality from chiral inducers is observed. Both Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) and Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) point to the presence, in both the solid and solution phases, of globular-shaped aggregates with sizes close to 130 nm. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations performed on simplified models show that (i) upon protonation, the saddled conformation of the porphyrin ring is slightly altered, and a further rotation of the aryl rings occurs, and (ii) the diacid species is more stable than the parent unprotonated porphyrin. Time-dependent DFT analysis allows comparing the UV/Vis spectra for the two species, showing a consistent red shift upon protonation, even if larger than the experimental one. The simulated Raman spectrum agrees with the experimental spectrum acquired on solid samples.

Rod-like nanostructures through amphiphilic OPE-porphyrin self-organization.

A new amphiphilic monosubstituted porphyrin functionalized by a ß-D-glucoside terminated oligophenylenethylene (OPE) able to self-arrange into nano-aggregates in polar solvents has been synthesized and fully characterized in its monomeric and aggregated forms.

Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, and Excretion of [14C]iptacopan in Healthy Male Volunteers and in In Vivo and In Vitro Studies.

Iptacopan (LNP023) is an oral, small-molecule, first-in-class, highly potent proximal complement inhibitor that specifically binds factor B and inhibits the alternative complement pathway. Iptacopan is currently in development as a targeted treatment of paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria and multiple other complement-mediated diseases. In this study, the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) of iptacopan was characterized in six healthy volunteers after a single 100 mg oral dose of [14C]iptacopan. This was supplemented with an in vivo rat ADME study and metabolite exposure comparisons between human, rat, and dog, in addition to in vitro assays, to better understand the clearance pathways and enzymes involved in the metabolism of iptacopan. The fraction of [14C]iptacopan absorbed was estimated to be about 71%, with a time to maximum concentration of 1.5 hours and elimination half-life from plasma of 12.3 hours. Following a single dose of [14C]iptacopan, 71.5% of the radioactivity was recovered in feces and 24.8% in urine. [14C]iptacopan was primarily eliminated by hepatic metabolism. The main biotransformation pathways were oxidative metabolism via CYP2C8, with M2 being the major oxidative metabolite, and acyl glucuronidation via UGT1A1. The two acyl glucuronide metabolites in human plasma, M8 and M9, each accounted for ≤ 10% of the total circulating drug-related material; systemic exposure was also observed in toxicology studies in rat and dog, suggesting a low risk associated with these metabolites. Binding of iptacopan to its target, factor B, in the bloodstream led to a concentration-dependent blood:plasma distribution and plasma protein binding of [14C]iptacopan. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: We characterized the pharmacokinetics, excretion, metabolism and elimination of [14C]iptacopan (an oral, selective small-molecule inhibitor of factor B) in healthy human subjects. [14C]iptacopan was primarily eliminated by metabolism. The primary biotransformation pathways were oxidative metabolism via CYP2C8 and acyl glucuronidation via UGT1A1. Direct secretion of iptacopan into urine and potentially bile represented additional elimination mechanisms. Binding of iptacopan to its target, factor B, in the bloodstream led to a concentration-dependent blood:plasma distribution and plasma protein binding of [14C]iptacopan.

Evaluation of the drug disposition of RO7049389 with in vitro data and human mass balance supported by physiologically based pharmacokinetic modelling.

AIMS: RO7049389 (linvencorvir) is a developmental oral treatment for chronic hepatitis B virus infection. The aim of this work was to conduct mass balance (MB) and absolute bioavailability (BA) analyses in healthy volunteers, alongside in vitro evaluations of the metabolism of RO7049389 and a major circulating active metabolite M5 in human hepatocytes, and physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modelling to refine the underlying drug disposition paradigm. METHODS: Participants in the clinical study (MB: Caucasian, male, n = 6; BA: Caucasian and Asian, male and female, n = 16, 8 in each ethnic groups) received oral [14 C] or unlabelled RO7049389 (600/1000 mg) followed by 100 µg intravenous [13 C]RO7049389. Metabolic pathways with fractions metabolized-obtained from the in vitro incubation results of 10 µM [14 C]RO7049389 and 1 µM M5 with (long-term cocultured) human hepatocytes in the absence and presence of the cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) inhibitor itraconazole-were used to complement the PBPK models, alongside the clinical MB and BA data. RESULTS: The model performance in predicting the pharmacokinetic profiles of RO7049389 and M5 aligned with clinical observations in Caucasians and was also successfully applied to Asians. Accordingly, the drug disposition pathways for RO7049389 were postulated with newly characterized estimates of the fractions: biliary excretion by P-glycoprotein (~41%), direct glucuronidation via uridine 5'-diphosphoglucuronosyltransferase 1A3 (~11%), hexose conjugation (~6%), oxidation by CYP3A4 (~28%) and other oxidation reactions (~9%). CONCLUSION: These results support the ongoing clinical development program for RO7049389 and highlight the broader value of PBPK and MB analyses in drug development.

Interaction of Aggregated Cationic Porphyrins with Human Serum Albumin.

The interaction of an equilibrium mixture of monomeric and aggregated cationic trans-5,15-bis(N-methylpyridinium-4-yl)-10,15-bis-diphenylporphine (t-H2Pagg) chloride salt with human serum albumin (HSA) has been investigated through UV/Vis absorption, fluorescence emission, circular dichroism and resonant light scattering techniques. The spectroscopic evidence reveals that both the monomeric t-H2Pagg and its aggregates bind instantaneously to HSA, leading to the formation of a tight adduct in which the porphyrin is encapsulated within the protein scaffold (S430) and to clusters of aggregated porphyrins in electrostatic interaction with the charged biomolecules. These latter species eventually interconvert into the final S430 species following pseudo-first-order kinetics. Molecular docking simulations have been performed to get some insights into the nature of the final adduct. Analogously to hemin bound to HSA, the obtained model supports favorable interactions of the porphyrin in the same 1B subdomain of the protein. Hydrophobic and van der Waals energy terms are the main contributions to the calculated ΔGbind value of -117.24 kcal/mol.

Kinetic Investigations on the Chiral Induction by Amino Acids in Porphyrin J-Aggregates.

The self-assembling kinetics of the 5,10,15,20-tetrakis(4-sulfonato-phenyl)porphyrin (TPPS4) into nano-tubular J-aggregates under strong acidic condition and in the presence of amino acids as templating chiral reagents have been investigated through UV/Vis spectroscopy. The ability of the chiral species to transfer its chiral information to the final J-aggregate has been measured through circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy and compared to the spontaneous symmetry breaking process usually observed in these nano-aggregates. Under the experimental conditions here selected, including mixing protocol, we have observed a large difference in the observed aggregation rates for the various amino acids, those with a positively charged side group being the most effective. On the contrary, these species are less efficient in transferring their chirality, exhibiting a quite low or modest enhancement in the observed dissymmetry g-factors. On the other side, hydrophobic and some hydrophilic amino acids are revealed to be very active in inducing chirality with a discrete increase of intensity of the detected CD bands with respect to the spontaneous symmetry breaking.

Considerations for Human ADME Strategy and Design Paradigm Shift(s) - An Industry White Paper.

The human absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (hADME) study is the cornerstone of the clinical pharmacology package for small molecule drugs, providing comprehensive information on the rates and routes of disposition and elimination of drug-related material in humans through the use of 14 C-labeled drug. Significant changes have already been made in the design of the hADME study for many companies, but opportunity exists to continue to re-think both the design and timing of the hADME study in light of the potential offered by newer technologies, that enable flexibility in particular to reducing the magnitude of the radioactive dose used. This paper provides considerations on the variety of current strategies that exist across a number of pharmaceutical companies and on some of the ongoing debates around a potential move to the so called "human first/human only" approach, already adopted by at least one company. The paper also provides a framework for continuing the discussion in the application of further shifts in the paradigm.

Exploration and application of a liver-on-a-chip device in combination with modelling and simulation for quantitative drug metabolism studies.

Microphysiological systems (MPS) are complex and more physiologically realistic cellular in vitro tools that aim to provide more relevant human in vitro data for quantitative prediction of clinical pharmacokinetics while also reducing the need for animal testing. The PhysioMimix liver-on-a-chip integrates medium flow with hepatocyte culture and has the potential to be adopted for in vitro studies investigating the hepatic disposition characteristics of drug candidates. The current study focusses on liver-on-a-chip system exploration for multiple drug metabolism applications. Characterization of cytochrome P450 (CYP), UDP-glucuronosyl transferase (UGT) and aldehyde oxidase (AO) activities was performed using 15 drugs and in vitro to in vivo extrapolation (IVIVE) was assessed for 12 of them. Next, the utility of the liver-on-a-chip for estimation of the fraction metabolized (fm) via specific biotransformation pathways of quinidine and diclofenac was established. Finally, the metabolite identification opportunities were also explored using efavirenz as an example drug with complex primary and secondary metabolism involving a combination of CYP, UGT and sulfotransferase enzymes. A key aspect of these investigations was the application of mathematical modelling for improved parameter calculation. Such approaches will be required for quantitative assessment of metabolism and/or transporter processes in systems where medium flow and system compartments result in non-homogeneous drug concentrations. In particular, modelling was used to explore the effect of evaporation from the medium and it was found that the intrinsic clearance (CLint) might be underestimated by up to 40% for low clearance compounds if evaporation is not accounted for. Modelling of liver-on-a-chip in vitro data also enhanced the approach to fm estimation allowing objective assessment of metabolism models of different complexity. The resultant diclofenac fm,UGT of 0.64 was highly comparable with values reported previously in the literature. The current study demonstrates the integration of mathematical modelling with experimental liver-on-a-chip studies and illustrates how this approach supports generation of high quality of data from complex in vitro cellular systems.

Species-dependent hepatic and intestinal metabolism of selective oestrogen receptor degrader LSZ102 by sulphation and glucuronidation.

LSZ102 is an orally bioavailable selective oestrogen receptor degrader in clinical development for the treatment of breast cancer. Preclinical studies showed efficacy in xenograft models on oral dosing. However, oral bioavailability was relatively low in several preclinical species (7-33%), and was associated with first-pass metabolism, particularly intestinal first-pass.To investigate metabolism and first-pass effects, metabolites were analysed in human plasma samples after oral dosing of LSZ102 to patients, rat plasma samples after oral dosing of [14C]LSZ102, and in vitro incubations of [14C]LSZ102 with human and rat hepatocytes and intestinal S9 fractions. The kinetics of human sulfotransferase (SULT) enzymes potentially involved in metabolism of LSZ102 was characterised.Sulphate metabolites were found to be the major components in human plasma, as well as in human hepatocytes and intestinal S9 fractions. Contrastingly, glucuronidation was predominant in rat plasma, hepatocytes and intestinal S9. LSZ102 was found to be metabolised by several human SULTs expressed in liver and intestine. The combined metabolism data in rat and human provide supporting evidence for an extensive intestinal first-pass metabolism effect via sulphation in human but glucuronidation in rat.As LSZ102 is metabolised by a number of different SULTs, drug-drug interactions resulting from the inhibition of one SULT are unlikely.Despite the observed species difference in metabolism, the major human metabolites of LSZ102, sulphate M5, glucuronide M4, and secondary glucuronide/sulphate metabolite M12, have no or weak pharmacological activity and are not considered a toxicity risk as they are phase II conjugative metabolites.

Advances in the Chemistry of Porphyrins and Related Macrocycles.

Porphyrins and their analogues feature remarkably in nature, being prosthetic groups in a wide variety of primary metabolites playing a pivotal role in many biological processes [...].

1,1'-Bis(diphenylphosphino)ferrocene Platinum(II) Complexes as a Route to Functionalized Multiporphyrin Systems.

In this study, the cationic complex [PtMe(Me2SO)(dppf)]CF3SO3 (PtFc) (dppf = 1,1'-bis(diphenylphosphino)ferrocene) was exploited as a precursor to functionalize the multi-chromophoric system hexakis(pyridyl-porphyrinato)benzene (1). The final adduct [PtFc]18-1, containing eighteen platinum(II) organometallic [PtMe(dppf)] fragments, was prepared and characterized through UV/Vis absorption, 31P{1H}-NMR spectroscopy, and fluorescence emission. UV/vis and fluorescence titrations confirmed the coordination between the platinum(II) center and all the pyridyl moieties of the peripheral substituent groups of the porphyrin. The drop casting of diluted dichloromethane solution of [PtFc]18-1 onto a glass surface afford micrometer-sized emissive porphyrin rings.

Effects of the Mixing Protocol on the Self-Assembling Process of Water Soluble Porphyrins.

The hierarchical self-assembling kinetics of the porphyrin 5,10,15,20-tetrakis(4-sulfonatophenyl)porphyrin (H2TPPS44-) into J-aggregates at high ionic strength under acidic conditions and eventually in the presence of an added chiral templating agent (tartrate) were investigated through UV/Vis spectroscopy, resonance light scattering, and circular dichroism (CD). The effect of changing the mixing order of the various components in the solution on the kinetic parameters and the expression of chirality on the final J-aggregates was evaluated. In this latter case, only when the chiral tartrate anion is premixed with the porphyrin, the resulting nano-architectures exhibit CD spectra that reflect the handedness of the chiral inducer. We discuss a general mechanistic scheme, with the involvement of ion pairs or dimers that offer an alternative pathway to the aggregation process.

Kinetic Investigation on Tetrakis(4-Sulfonatophenyl)Porphyrin J-Aggregates Formation Catalyzed by Cationic Metallo-Porphyrins.

Under mild acidic conditions, various metal derivatives of tetrakis(4-N-methylpyridinium)porphyrin (gold(III), AuT4; cobalt(III), CoT4; manganese(III), MnT4 and zinc(II), ZnT4) catalytically promote the supramolecular assembling process of the diacid 5,10,15,20-tetrakis(4-sulfonatophenyl)porphyrin (H2TPPS4) into J-aggregates. The aggregation kinetics have been treated according to a well-established model that involves the initial formation of a critical nucleus containing m porphyrin units, followed by autocatalytic growth, in which the rate evolves as a power of time. An analysis of the extinction time traces allows to obtain the rate constants for the auto-catalyzed pathway, kc, and the number of porphyrins involved in the initial seeding. The aggregation kinetics have been investigated at fixed H2TPPS4 concentration as a function of the added metal derivatives MT4. The derived rate constants, kc, obey a rate law that is first order in [MT4] and depend on the specific nature of the catalyst in the order AuT4 > CoT4 > MnT4 > ZnT4. Both resonance light scattering (RLS) intensity and extinction in the aggregated samples increase on increasing [MT4]. With the exception of AuT4, the final aggregated samples obtained at the highest catalyst concentration exhibit a negative Cotton effect in the J-band region, evidencing the occurrence of spontaneous symmetry breaking. The role of the nature of the metal derivative in terms of overall charge and presence of axial groups will be discussed.