Individualized Low-Amplitude Seizure Therapy: Minimizing Current for Electroconvulsive Therapy and Magnetic Seizure Therapy.

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) at conventional current amplitudes (800-900 mA) is highly effective but carries the risk of cognitive side effects. Lowering and individualizing the current amplitude may reduce side effects by virtue of a less intense and more focal electric field exposure in the brain, but this aspect of ECT dosing is largely unexplored. Magnetic seizure therapy (MST) induces a weaker and more focal electric field than ECT; however, the pulse amplitude is not individualized and the minimum amplitude required to induce a seizure is unknown. We titrated the amplitude of long stimulus trains (500 pulses) as a means of determining the minimum current amplitude required to induce a seizure with ECT (bilateral, right unilateral, bifrontal, and frontomedial electrode placements) and MST (round coil on vertex) in nonhuman primates. Furthermore, we investigated a novel method of predicting this amplitude-titrated seizure threshold (ST) by a non-convulsive measurement of motor threshold (MT) using single pulses delivered through the ECT electrodes or MST coil. Average STs were substantially lower than conventional pulse amplitudes (112-174 mA for ECT and 37.4% of maximum device amplitude for MST). ST was more variable in ECT than in MST. MT explained 63% of the ST variance and is hence the strongest known predictor of ST. These results indicate that seizures can be induced with less intense electric fields than conventional ECT that may be safer; efficacy and side effects should be evaluated in clinical studies. MT measurement could be a faster and safer alternative to empirical ST titration for ECT and MST.

Ultrabrief (0.3 ms) or brief (0.5 ms) pulses for right unilateral electroconvulsive therapy: is there a difference in seizure thresholds?

OBJECTIVES: To compare the minimum charge to elicit a seizure using 2 different pulse widths, the brief pulse (0.5 milliseconds [ms]) and the ultrabrief pulse (0.3 ms). METHODS: We compared retrospectively the last 30 patients in our ECT unit whose seizure thresholds were titrated using a pulse width of 0.5 ms to the last 30 patients whose seizure thresholds were titrated using a pulse width of 0.3 ms. The former were regular clinical patients, and the latter were participating in a clinical trial on the use of ultrabrief pulse treatment. All titrations were performed with right unilateral electrode positioning. Most patients continued to use psychotropic medications. RESULTS: Initial seizure threshold (as measured in millicoulombs [mC]) for the brief pulse group (0.5 ms) was 16 (n = 1); 32 (n = 21), and 64 (n = 8); whereas for the ultrabrief pulse group (0.3 ms), it was 9.2 (n = 3), 38.4 (n = 21), 19.2 (n = 3), 76.8 (n = 2), and 307.2 (n = 1). Excluding the outlier, there was no statistical difference between mean seizure thresholds. CONCLUSIONS: If we exclude the outlier from the ultrabrief group (seizure threshold [ST], 307 mC), we can observe that most of the patients in both groups had an ST between 30 and 40 mC. No patient in the brief pulse group showed a lower ST than 16 mC, probably because this was the first step of titration for this group. The data suggest that the difference between 0.3 and 0.5 ms may not be big, although randomized prospective studies with a more precise and similar steps used for titration are needed. Clinical efficacy was not compared in the present study.

Simultaneous low (1 Hz)- and high (10 Hz)-frequency bilateral transcranial magnetic stimulation in a patient with severe depression and crohn disease.

We present a case report in which electroconvulsive therapy had a good effect for the treatment of depression in association with Crohn disease, but adverse effects limited its use. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation was tried both in a conventional way (high frequency over the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) and in a bilateral sequential way (high frequency in the same region followed in the same session by low frequency on the right side). Finally, bilateral simultaneous stimulation (high frequency over the left and low frequency over the right side) was tried and resulted in a response similar to that of electroconvulsive therapy.

Somatic treatments for mood disorders.

Somatic treatments for mood disorders represent a class of interventions available either as a stand-alone option, or in combination with psychopharmacology and/or psychotherapy. Here, we review the currently available techniques, including those already in clinical use and those still under research. Techniques are grouped into the following categories: (1) seizure therapies, including electroconvulsive therapy and magnetic seizure therapy, (2) noninvasive techniques, including repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation, transcranial direct current stimulation, and cranial electric stimulation, (3) surgical approaches, including vagus nerve stimulation, epidural electrical stimulation, and deep brain stimulation, and (4) technologies on the horizon. Additionally, we discuss novel approaches to the optimization of each treatment, and new techniques that are under active investigation.

Electroconvulsive therapy stimulus parameters: rethinking dosage.

In this article, we review the parameters that define the electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) electrical stimulus and discuss their biophysical roles. We also present the summary metrics of charge and energy that are conventionally used to describe the dose of ECT and the rules commonly deployed to individualize the dose for each patient. We then highlight the limitations of these summary metrics and dosing rules in that they do not adequately capture the roles of the distinct stimulus parameters. Specifically, there is strong theoretical and empirical evidence that stimulus parameters (pulse amplitude, shape, and width, and train frequency, directionality, polarity, and duration) exert unique neurobiological effects that are important for understanding ECT outcomes. Consideration of the distinct stimulus parameters, in conjunction with electrode placement, is central to further optimization of ECT dosing paradigms to improve the risk-benefit ratio. Indeed, manipulation of specific parameters, such as reduction of pulse width and increase in number of pulses, has already resulted in dramatic reduction of adverse effects, while maintaining efficacy. Furthermore, the manipulation of other parameters, such as current amplitude, which are commonly held at fixed, high values, might be productively examined as additional means of targeting and individualizing the stimulus, potentially reducing adverse effects. We recommend that ECT dose be defined using all stimulus parameters rather than a summary metric. All stimulus parameters should be noted in treatment records and published reports. To enable research on optimization of dosing paradigms, we suggest that ECT devices provide capabilities to adjust and display all stimulus parameters.

Neuromodulation approaches for the treatment of major depression: challenges and recommendations from a working group meeting.

UNLABELLED: The use of neuromodulation as a treatment for major depressive disorder (MDD) has recently attracted renewed interest due to development of other non-pharmacological therapies besides electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) such as transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), deep brain stimulation (DBS), and vagus nerve stimulation (VNS). METHOD: We convened a working group of researchers to discuss the updates and key challenges of neuromodulation use for the treatment of MDD. RESULTS: The state-of-art of neuromodulation techniques was reviewed and discussed in four sections: [1] epidemiology and pathophysiology of MDD; [2] a comprehensive overview of the neuromodulation techniques; [3] using neuromodulation techniques in MDD associated with non-psychiatric conditions; [4] the main challenges of neuromodulation research and alternatives to overcome them. DISCUSSION: ECT is the first-line treatment for severe depression. TMS and tDCS are strategies with a relative benign profile of side effects; however, while TMS effects are comparable to antidepressant drugs for treating MDD; further research is needed to establish the role of tDCS. DBS and VNS are invasive strategies with a possible role in treatment-resistant depression. In summary, MDD is a chronic and incapacitating condition with a high prevalence; therefore clinicians should consider all the treatment options including invasive and non-invasive neuromodulation approaches.

Neuromodulation approaches for the treatment of major depression: challenges and recommendations from a working group meeting / Estratégias de neuromodulação para o tratamento da depressão maior: desafios e recomendações de uma força-tarefa

The use of neuromodulation as a treatment for major depressive disorder (MDD) has recently attracted renewed interest due to development of other non-pharmacological therapies besides electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) such as transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), deep brain stimulation (DBS), and vagus nerve stimulation (VNS). METHOD: We convened a working group of researchers to discuss the updates and key challenges of neuromodulation use for the treatment of MDD. RESULTS: The state-of-art of neuromodulation techniques was reviewed and discussed in four sections: [1] epidemiology and pathophysiology of MDD; [2] a comprehensive overview of the neuromodulation techniques; [3] using neuromodulation techniques in MDD associated with non-psychiatric conditions; [4] the main challenges of neuromodulation research and alternatives to overcome them. DISCUSSION: ECT is the first-line treatment for severe depression. TMS and tDCS are strategies with a relative benign profile of side effects; however, while TMS effects are comparable to antidepressant drugs for treating MDD; further research is needed to establish the role of tDCS. DBS and VNS are invasive strategies with a possible role in treatment-resistant depression. In summary, MDD is a chronic and incapacitating condition with a high prevalence; therefore clinicians should consider all the treatment options including invasive and non-invasive neuromodulation approaches.

O uso de técnicas de neuromodulação para o tratamento do transtorno depressivo maior (TDM) tem despertado um renovado interesse nos últimos anos com o desenvolvimento de outras intervenções não-farmacólogicas além da eletroconvulsoterapia (ECT), como a estimulação magnética transcraniana (EMT), a estimulação transcraniana por corrente continua (ETCC), a estimulação cerebral profunda (DBS) e a estimulação de nervo vago (VNS). MÉTODO: Nós organizamos um grupo de trabalho com vários pesquisadores para discutir os avanços recentes e os principais desafios para o uso da neuromodulação no tratamento do TDM. RESULTADOS: O estado-da-arte da neuromodulação foi revisado e discutido em quatro seções: [1] epidemiologia e fisiopatologia do TDM; [2] uma revisão das técnicas de neuromodulação; [3] o uso das técnicas de neuromodulação na depressão que ocorre associada ou em virtude de condições não-psiquiátricas; [4] os principais desafios da pesquisa na neuromodulação e alternativas para superá-los. DISCUSSÃO: ECT é o tratamento de primeira linha para depressão grave. EMT e ETCC são estratégias com um perfil benigno de efeitos adversos; contudo, enquanto os efeitos da EMT são comparáveis ao das drogas antidepressivas para o tratamento da TDM, a eficácia da ETCC ainda precisa ser estabelecida por mais pesquisas clínicas. DBS e VNS são intervenções invasivas com um papel possível para a depressão refratária. Em resumo, TDM é uma condição crônica, incapacitante e de alta prevalência; portanto na prática clínica todas as opções de tratamento possíveis, incluindo as farmacológicas e não-farmacológicas, devem ser consideradas.

[Electroconvulsive therapy in major depression: current aspects]. / Eletroconvulsoterapia na depressão maior: aspectos atuais.

OBJECTIVE: The efficacy of electroconvulsive therapy in treating depressive symptoms has been established by means of innumerable studies developed along the last decades. Electroconvulsive therapy is the most effective biological treatment for depression currently available. The objective of this study was to demonstrate the role of electroconvulsive therapy in the treatment of depression and highlight present aspects related to its practice. METHOD: We reviewed in the literature studies on efficacy, symptom remission, predictive response factors as well as current aspects regarding quality of life, the patients' perception, mechanism of action, technique and cognitive impairment. RESULTS: The main results found in the this revision were: 1) electroconvulsive therapy is more effective than any antidepressant medication; 2) the remission of depression with electroconvulsive therapy varies, in general, from 50 to 80%; 3) The effect of electroconvulsive therapy in brain-derived neurotrophic factor levels is still controversial; 4) electroconvulsive therapy has a positive effect in the improvement of quality of life; 5) patients submitted to electroconvulsive therapy have, in general, a positive perception about the treatment. CONCLUSION: Electroconvulsive therapy remains a highly efficacious treatment in treatment-resistant depression. With the improvement of its technique, electroconvulsive therapy has become an even safer and more useful procedure both for the acute phase and for the prevention of new depressive episodes.

Eletroconvulsoterapia na depressão maior: aspectos atuais / Electroconvulsive therapy in major depression: current aspects

Objetivo: A eficácia da eletroconvulsoterapia em tratar sintomas depressivos está estabelecida por meio de inúmeros estudos desenvolvidos durante as últimas décadas. A eletroconvulsoterapia é o tratamento biológico mais efetivo para depressão atualmente disponível. O objetivo deste estudo foi demonstrar o papel da eletroconvulsoterapia no tratamento da depressão e destacar aspectos atuais relativos à sua prática. Método: Foram revisados na literatura estudos de eficácia, remissão de sintomas, fatores preditores de resposta, assim como aspectos atuais acerca da qualidade de vida, percepção dos pacientes, mecanismo de ação, técnica e prejuízo cognitivos. Resultados: Os principais achados desta revisão foram: 1) a eletroconvulsoterapia é mais efetiva do que qualquer medicação antidepressiva; 2) a remissão da depressão com a eletroconvulsoterapia varia, em geral, de 50 a 80%; 3) Ainda é controverso o efeito da eletroconvulsoterapia nos níveis de fator neurotrófico derivado do cérebro (acho que aqui pode colocar entre parenteses o “BNDF”); 4) a eletroconvulsoterapia tem efeito positivo na melhora da qualidade de vida; 5) os pacientes submetidos à eletroconvulsoterapia, em geral, têm uma percepção positiva do tratamento. Conclusão: A eletroconvulsoterapia permanece sendo um tratamento altamente eficaz em pacientes com depressão resistente. Com o avanço da sua técnica, a eletroconvulsoterapia tornou-se um procedimento aindamais seguro e útil tanto para a fase aguda, quanto para a prevenção de novos episódios depressivos.

Objective: The efficacy of electroconvulsive therapy in treating depressive symptoms has been established by means of innumerablestudies developed along the last decades. Electroconvulsive therapy is the most effective biological treatment for depression currently available. The objective of this study was to demonstrate the role of lectroconvulsive therapy in the treatment of depression and highlight present aspects related to its practice. Method: We reviewed in the literature studies on efficacy, symptom remission, predictive response factors as well as current aspects regarding quality of life, the patients’ perception, mechanism of action, technique and cognitive impairment. Results: The main results found in the this revision were: 1) electroconvulsive therapy is more effective than any antidepressant medication; 2) the remission of depression with electroconvulsive therapy varies, in general, from 50 to 80%; 3) The effect of electroconvulsive therapy in brain-derived neurotrophic factor levels is still controversial; 4) electroconvulsive therapy has a positive effect in the improvement of quality of life; 5) patients submitted to electroconvulsive therapy have, in general, a positive perception about the treatment. Conclusion: Electroconvulsive therapy remains a highly efficacious treatment in treatment-resistant depression. With the improvement of its technique, electroconvulsive therapy has become an even safer and more useful procedure both for the acute phase and for the prevention of new depressive episodes.

Recovery after ECT: comparison of propofol, etomidate and thiopental / Recuperação pós-eletroconvulsoterapia: comparação entre propofol, etomidato e tiopental

OBJECTIVES: To compare post anesthetic time for patient recovery after electroconvulsive therapy, as measured by the post anesthetic Recovery Score of Aldrete and Kroulik, using three different types of hypnotic drugs (propofol, etomidate and thiopental). METHOD: Thirty patients were randomized to receive one of the three drugs (n = 10 in each group), during a course of electroconvulsive therapy treatment. Patients and raters were blinded to which drug was received. Main treatment characteristics were recorded (as total electric charge received seizure threshold, number of treatments, and the mean time for recovery) along the whole treatment. RESULTS: Thiopental and propofol were associated with a significance increase in charge needed to induce a seizure (p < 0.0001) when compared to etomidate, as well as a significant decrease of time for recovery (p = 0.042). CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that, although there seems to be no difference in the clinical outcome across these three drugs, propofol offers the best recovery profile. However, it makes a higher mean electric charge necessary.

OBJETIVOS: Comparar o tempo de recuperação dos pacientes após eletroconvulsoterapia avaliada com a escala de recuperação pós-anestésica de Aldrete e Kroulik, utilizando três tipos de medicações anestésicas (propofol, etomidato and tiopental). MÉTODO: Trinta pacientes foram randomizados para receber uma das medicações (n = 10 em cada grupo) durante uma série de tratamentos com eletroconvulsoterapia. Os pacientes e o examinador ficaram cegos para o tipo de anestésico utilizado. As principais características do tratamento foram avaliadas (como carga total de eletricidade recebida, limiar convulsivo, número de sessões e o tempo médio para recuperação) ao longo de toda a série de tratamentos. RESULTADOS: Tiopental e propofol se associaram a um aumento significativo na carga elétrica total utilizada (p < 0,0001) quando comparados com etomidato, bem como uma diminuição significativa no tempo de recuperação pós-anestésica (p = 0,042). CONCLUSÕES: Estes achados sugerem que, apesar de não haver diferença na evolução clínica entre os três grupos estudados, a droga propofol oferece o melhor perfil de recuperação apesar de requerer uma carga elétrica média maior.

Recovery after ECT: comparison of propofol, etomidate and thiopental.

OBJECTIVES: To compare post anesthetic time for patient recovery after electroconvulsive therapy, as measured by the post anesthetic Recovery Score of Aldrete and Kroulik, using three different types of hypnotic drugs (propofol, etomidate and thiopental). METHOD: Thirty patients were randomized to receive one of the three drugs (n = 10 in each group), during a course of electroconvulsive therapy treatment. Patients and raters were blinded to which drug was received. Main treatment characteristics were recorded (as total electric charge received seizure threshold, number of treatments, and the mean time for recovery) along the whole treatment. RESULTS: Thiopental and propofol were associated with a significance increase in charge needed to induce a seizure (p < 0.0001) when compared to etomidate, as well as a significant decrease of time for recovery (p = 0.042). CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that, although there seems to be no difference in the clinical outcome across these three drugs, propofol offers the best recovery profile. However, it makes a higher mean electric charge necessary.

Pacheco e Silva [corrected] and the origins of electroconvulsive therapy in Brazil. 1941.

There are few data about the history of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) in many countries of the world, especially in developing ones as those of South America. This article offers a translation of an article published in 1941 by Dr Pacheco e Silva describing how ECT came to Brazil and its first use. He tells of how he learned about ECT during the 97th American Psychiatric Association Annual Meeting held in Richmond, Va, that same year, the lectures he attended, his visits to some American hospitals that were performing ECT at that time, the devices he bought, and his first experiences in using ECT in Brazil, first with dogs and, then, with patients. We also give a brief biography of Dr. Pacheco e Silva, who was a very important Brazilian psychiatrist.