Thyroid status regulates the tumor microenvironment delineating breast cancer fate.

The patient's hormonal context plays a crucial role in the outcome of cancer. However, the association between thyroid disease and breast cancer risk remains unclear. We evaluated the effect of thyroid status on breast cancer growth and dissemination in an immunocompetent mouse model. For this, hyperthyroid and hypothyroid Balb/c mice were orthotopically inoculated with triple-negative breast cancer 4T1 cells. Tumors from hyperthyroid mice showed an increased growth rate and an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, characterized by increased IL-10 levels and decreased percentage of activated cytotoxic T cells. On the other hand, delayed tumor growth in hypothyroid animals was associated with increased tumor infiltration of activated CD8+ cells and a high IFNγ/IL-10 ratio. Paradoxically, hypothyroid mice developed a higher number of lung metastasis than hyperthyroid animals. This was related to an increased secretion of tumor CCL2 and an immunosuppressive systemic environment, with increased proportion of regulatory T cells and IL-10 levels in spleens. A lower number of lung metastasis in hyperthyroid mice was related to the reduced presence of mesenchymal stem cells in tumors and metastatic sites. These animals also exhibited decreased percentages of regulatory T lymphocytes and myeloid-derived suppressor cells in spleens but increased activated CD8+ cells and the IFNγ/IL-10 ratio. Therefore, thyroid hormones modulate the cellular and cytokine content of the breast tumor microenvironment. A better understanding of the mechanisms involved in these effects could be a starting point for the discovery of new therapeutic targets for breast cancer.

Thyroid hormones induce doxorubicin chemosensitivity through enzymes involved in chemotherapy metabolism in lymphoma T cells.

Thyroid hormones (THs) - 3,3',5-triiodo-L-thyronine (T3) and L-thyroxine (T4) - are important regulators of the metabolism and physiology of most normal tissues. Cytochrome P450 family 3A members are drug metabolizing enzymes involved in the activation and detoxification of several drugs. CYP3A4 is the major enzyme involved in the metabolism of chemotherapeutic drugs. In this work, we demonstrate that THs induce a significant increase in CYP3A4 mRNA levels, protein expression and metabolic activity through the membrane receptor integrin αvß3 and the activation of signalling pathways through Stat1 and NF-κB. We reasoned that TH-induced CYP3A4 modulation may act as an important regulator in the metabolism of doxorubicin (Doxo). Experiments in vitro demonstrated that in CYP3A4-knocked down cells, no TH-mediated chemosensitivity to Doxo was observed. We also found that THs modulate these functions by activating the membrane receptor integrin αvß3. In addition, we showed that the thyroid status can modulate CYP450 mRNA levels in tumor and liver tissues, and the tumor volume in response to chemotherapy in vivo. In fact, Doxo treatment in hypothyroid mice was associated with lower tumors, displaying lower levels of CYP enzymes, than euthyroid mice. However, higher mRNA levels of CYP enzymes were found in livers from Doxo treated hypothyroid mice respect to control. These results present a new mechanism by which TH could modulate chemotherapy response. These findings highlight the importance of evaluating thyroid status in patients during application of T-cell lymphoma therapeutic regimens.

Radiosensitivity enhancement of human thyroid carcinoma cells by the inhibitors of histone deacetylase sodium butyrate and valproic acid.

Radiotherapy is one of the leading treatments for clinical cancer therapy. External beam radiotherapy has been proposed as an adjuvant treatment for patients bearing differentiated thyroid cancer refractory to conventional therapy. Our purpose was to study the combined effect of HDAC inhibitors (HDACi) and ionizing irradiation in thyroid cancer cell lines (Nthy-ori 3-1, WRO, TPC-1 and 8505c). HDACi radiosensitized thyroid cancer cells as evidenced by the reduction of survival fraction, whereas they had no effect in the normal cells. HDACi enhanced radiation-induced cell death in WRO cells. Gamma-H2AX foci number increased and persisted long after ionizing exposure in the HDACi-treated cells (WRO and TPC-1). Moreover, the expression of the repair-related gene Ku80 was differentially modulated only in the cancer cells, by the compounds at the protein and/or mRNA levels. We present in vitro evidence that HDACi can enhance the radiosensitivity of human thyroid cancer cells.

Oncodriver inhibition and CD4+ Th1 cytokines cooperate through Stat1 activation to induce tumor senescence and apoptosis in HER2+ and triple negative breast cancer: implications for combining immune and targeted therapies.

In patients with HER2-expressing breast cancer many develop resistance to HER2 targeted therapies. We show that high and intermediate HER2-expressing cancer cell lines are driven toward apoptosis and tumor senescence when treated with either CD4+ Th1 cells, or Th1 cytokines TNF-α and IFN-γ, in a dose dependent manner. Depletion of HER2 activity by either siRNA or trastuzumab and pertuzumab, and subsequent treatment with either anti-HER2 Th1 cells or TNF-α and IFN-γ resulted in synergistic increased tumor senescence and apoptosis in cells both sensitive and cells resistant to trastuzumab which was inhibited by neutralizing anti-TNF-α and IFN-γ. Th1 cytokines induced minimal senescence or apoptosis in triple negative breast cancer cells (TNBC); however, inhibition of EGFR in combination with Th1 cytokines sensitized those cells causing both senescence and apoptosis. TNF-α and IFN-γ led to increased Stat1 phosphorylation through serine and tyrosine sites and a compensatory reduction in Stat3 activation. Single agent IFN-γ enhanced Stat1 phosphorylation on tyrosine 701 and similar effects were observed in combination with TNF-α and EGFR inhibition. These results demonstrate Th1 cytokines and anti-oncodriver blockade cooperate in causing tumor senescence and apoptosis in TNBC and HER2-expressing breast cancer, suggesting these combinations could be explored as non-cross-reactive therapy preventing recurrence in breast cancer.

Restoring Lost Anti-HER-2 Th1 Immunity in Breast Cancer: A Crucial Role for Th1 Cytokines in Therapy and Prevention.

The ErbB/B2 (HER-2/neu) oncogene family plays a critical role in the development and metastatic spread of several tumor types including breast, ovarian and gastric cancer. In breast cancer, HER-2/neu is expressed in early disease development in a large percentage of DCIS lesions and its expression is associated with an increased risk of invasion and recurrence. Targeting HER-2 with antibodies such as trastuzumab or pertuzumab has improved survival, but patients with more extensive disease may develop resistance to therapy. Interestingly, response to HER-2 targeted therapies correlates with presence of immune response genes in the breast. Th1 cell production of the cytokines interferon gamma (IFNγ) and TNFα can enhance MHC class I expression, PD-L1 expression, augment apoptosis and tumor senescence, and enhances growth inhibition of many anti-breast cancer agents, including anti-estrogens and HER-2 targeted therapies. Recently, we have identified that a loss of anti-HER-2 CD4 Th1 in peripheral blood occurs during breast tumorigenesis and is dramatically diminished, even in Stage I breast cancers. The loss of anti-HER-2 Th1 response is specific and not readily reversed by standard therapies. In fact, this loss of anti-HER-2 Th1 response in peripheral blood correlates with lack of complete response to neoadjuvant therapy and diminished disease-free survival. This defect can be restored with HER-2 vaccinations in both DCIS and IBC. Correcting the anti-HER-2 Th1 response may have significant impact in improving response to HER-2 targeted therapies. Development of immune monitoring systems for anti-HER-2 Th1 to identify patients at risk for recurrence could be critical to improving outcomes, since the anti-HER-2 Th1 response can be restored by vaccination. Correction of the cellular immune response against HER-2 may prevent recurrence in high-risk patients with DCIS and IBC at risk of developing new or recurrent breast cancer.

APOBEC3B expression in drug resistant MCF-7 breast cancer cell lines.

APOBEC3B belongs to a protein family of cytidine deaminases that can insert mutations in DNA and RNA as a result of their ability to deaminate cytidine to uridine. It has been shown that APOBEC3B-catalysed deamination provides a chronic source of DNA damage in breast cancers. We investigated APOBEC3B expression in four drug resistant breast cancer cell lines (Doxorubicin, Etoposide, Paclitaxel and Docetaxel resistant MCF-7 cell lines) using a novel RNA in situ hybridization technology (RNAscope) and compared expression levels with drug sensitive MCF-7 cell line. After RNAscope staining, slides were scanned and saved as digital images using Aperio scanner and software. Quantitative scoring utilizing the number of punctate dots present within each cell boundary was performed for the parameters including positive cell percentage and signal intensity per positive cell. In Doxorubicin and Etoposide resistant MCF-7 cell lines, APOBEC3B expression was approximately five-fold increased (23% and 24% respectively) with higher signal intensity (1.92 and 1.44 signal/cell, respectively) compared to drug sensitive MCF-7 cell line (5%, 1.00 signal/cell) with statistical significance. The increase of APOBEC3B expression in Docataxel resitant and Paclitaxel resistant MCF-7 cell lines was not very high. In conclusion, APOBEC3B expression was increased in some population of tumor cells of drug resistant cell lines. At least for some drugs, APOBEC3B expression may be related to drug resistance, subjecting to some tumor cells to frequent mutation.

Progressive loss of anti-HER2 CD4+ T-helper type 1 response in breast tumorigenesis and the potential for immune restoration.

Genomic profiling has identified several molecular oncodrivers in breast tumorigenesis. A thorough understanding of endogenous immune responses to these oncodrivers may provide insights into immune interventions for breast cancer (BC). We investigated systemic anti-HER2/neu CD4+ T-helper type-1 (Th1) responses in HER2-driven breast tumorigenesis. A highly significant stepwise Th1 response loss extending from healthy donors (HD), through HER2pos-DCIS, and ultimately to early stage HER2pos-invasive BC patients was detected by IFNγ ELISPOT. The anti-HER2 Th1 deficit was not attributable to host-level T-cell anergy, loss of immune competence, or increase in immunosuppressive phenotypes (Treg/MDSCs), but rather associated with a functional shift in IFNγ:IL-10-producing phenotypes. HER2high, but not HER2low, BC cells expressing IFNγ/TNF-α receptors were susceptible to Th1 cytokine-mediated apoptosis in vitro, which could be significantly rescued by neutralizing IFNγ and TNF-α, suggesting that abrogation of HER2-specific Th1 may reflect a mechanism of immune evasion in HER2-driven tumorigenesis. While largely unaffected by cytotoxic or HER2-targeted (trastuzumab) therapies, depressed Th1 responses in HER2pos-BC patients were significantly restored following HER2-pulsed dendritic cell (DC) vaccinations, suggesting that this Th1 defect is not "fixed" and can be corrected by immunologic interventions. Importantly, preserved anti-HER2 Th1 responses were associated with pathologic complete response to neoadjuvant trastuzumab/chemotherapy, while depressed responses were observed in patients incurring locoregional/systemic recurrence following trastuzumab/chemotherapy. Monitoring anti-HER2 Th1 reactivity following HER2-directed therapies may identify vulnerable subgroups at risk of clinicopathologic failure. In such patients, combinations of existing HER2-targeted therapies with strategies to boost anti-HER2 CD4+ Th1 immunity may decrease the risk of recurrence and thus warrant further investigation.

Anti-HER2 CD4(+) T-helper type 1 response is a novel immune correlate to pathologic response following neoadjuvant therapy in HER2-positive breast cancer.

INTRODUCTION: A progressive loss of circulating anti-human epidermal growth factor receptor-2/neu (HER2) CD4(+) T-helper type 1 (Th1) immune responses is observed in HER2(pos)-invasive breast cancer (IBC) patients relative to healthy controls. Pathologic complete response (pCR) following neoadjuvant trastuzumab and chemotherapy (T + C) is associated with decreased recurrence and improved prognosis. We examined differences in anti-HER2 Th1 responses between pCR and non-pCR patients to identify modifiable immune correlates to pathologic response following neoadjuvant T + C. METHODS: Anti-HER2 Th1 responses in 87 HER2(pos)-IBC patients were examined using peripheral blood mononuclear cells pulsed with 6 HER2-derived class II peptides via IFN-γ ELISPOT. Th1 response metrics were anti-HER2 responsivity, repertoire (number of reactive peptides), and cumulative response across 6 peptides (spot-forming cells [SFC]/10(6) cells). Anti-HER2 Th1 responses of non-pCR patients (n = 4) receiving adjuvant HER2-pulsed type 1-polarized dendritic cell (DC1) vaccination were analyzed pre- and post-immunization. RESULTS: Depressed anti-HER2 Th1 responses observed in treatment-naïve HER2(pos)-IBC patients (n = 22) did not improve globally in T + C-treated HER2(pos)-IBC patients (n = 65). Compared with adjuvant T + C receipt, neoadjuvant T + C - utilized in 61.5 % - was associated with higher anti-HER2 Th1 repertoire (p = 0.048). While pCR (n = 16) and non-pCR (n = 24) patients did not differ substantially in demographic/clinical characteristics, pCR patients demonstrated dramatically higher anti-HER2 Th1 responsivity (94 % vs. 33 %, p = 0.0002), repertoire (3.3 vs. 0.3 peptides, p < 0.0001), and cumulative response (148.2 vs. 22.4 SFC/10(6), p < 0.0001) versus non-pCR patients. After controlling for potential confounders, anti-HER2 Th1 responsivity remained independently associated with pathologic response (odds ratio 8.82, p = 0.016). This IFN-γ(+) immune disparity was mediated by anti-HER2 CD4(+)T-bet(+)IFN-γ(+) (i.e., Th1) - not CD4(+)GATA-3(+)IFN-γ(+) (i.e., Th2) - phenotypes, and not attributable to non-pCR patients' immune incompetence, host-level T-cell anergy, or increased immunosuppressive populations. In recruited non-pCR patients, anti-HER2 Th1 repertoire (3.7 vs. 0.5, p = 0.014) and cumulative response (192.3 vs. 33.9 SFC/10(6), p = 0.014) improved significantly following HER2-pulsed DC1 vaccination. CONCLUSIONS: Anti-HER2 CD4(+) Th1 response is a novel immune correlate to pathologic response following neoadjuvant T + C. In non-pCR patients, depressed Th1 responses are not immunologically "fixed" and can be restored with HER2-directed Th1 immune interventions. In such high-risk patients, combining HER2-targeted therapies with strategies to boost anti-HER2 Th1 immunity may improve outcomes and mitigate recurrence.

CD4(+) T-Helper Type 1 Cytokines and Trastuzumab Facilitate CD8(+) T-cell Targeting of HER2/neu-Expressing Cancers.

Vaccination strategies incorporating the immunodominant HLA-A2-restricted HER2/neu-derived peptide 369-377 (HER2369-377) are increasingly utilized in HER2/neu-expressing cancer patients. The failure of postvaccination HER2369-377-specific CD8(+) T cells to recognize HLA-A2(pos)HER2/neu-expressing cells in vitro, however, has been attributed to impaired MHC class I/HLA-A2 presentation observed in HER2/neu-overexpressing tumors. We reconcile this controversy by demonstrating that HER2369-377 is directly recognized by high functional-avidity HER2369-377-specific CD8(+) T cells-either genetically modified to express a novel HER2369-377 TCR or sensitized using HER2369-377-pulsed type 1-polarized dendritic cells (DC1)-on class I-abundant HER2(low), but not class I-deficient HER2(high), cancer cells. Importantly, a critical cooperation between CD4(+) T-helper type-1 (Th1) cytokines IFNγ/TNFα and HER2/neu-targeted antibody trastuzumab is necessary to restore class I expression in HER2(high) cancers, thereby facilitating recognition and lysis of these cells by HER2369-377-specific CD8(+) T cells. Concomitant induction of PD-L1 on HER2/neu-expressing cells by IFNγ/TNF and trastuzumab, however, has minimal impact on DC1-sensitized HER2369-377-CD8(+) T-cell-mediated cytotoxicity. Although activation of EGFR and HER3 signaling significantly abrogates IFNγ/TNFα and trastuzumab-induced class I restoration, EGFR/HER3 receptor blockade rescues class I expression and ensuing HER2369-377-CD8(+) cytotoxicity of HER2/neu-expressing cells. Thus, combinations of CD4(+) Th1 immune interventions and multivalent targeting of HER family members may be required for optimal anti-HER2/neu CD8(+) T-cell-directed immunotherapy.

Transcriptional regulation of oncogenic protein kinase Cϵ (PKCϵ) by STAT1 and Sp1 proteins.

Overexpression of PKCϵ, a kinase associated with tumor aggressiveness and widely implicated in malignant transformation and metastasis, is a hallmark of multiple cancers, including mammary, prostate, and lung cancer. To characterize the mechanisms that control PKCϵ expression and its up-regulation in cancer, we cloned an ∼ 1.6-kb promoter segment of the human PKCϵ gene (PRKCE) that displays elevated transcriptional activity in cancer cells. A comprehensive deletional analysis established two regions rich in Sp1 and STAT1 sites located between -777 and -105 bp (region A) and -921 and -796 bp (region B), respectively, as responsible for the high transcriptional activity observed in cancer cells. A more detailed mutagenesis analysis followed by EMSA and ChIP identified Sp1 sites in positions -668/-659 and -269/-247 as well as STAT1 sites in positions -880/-869 and -793/-782 as the elements responsible for elevated promoter activity in breast cancer cells relative to normal mammary epithelial cells. RNAi silencing of Sp1 and STAT1 in breast cancer cells reduced PKCϵ mRNA and protein expression, as well as PRKCE promoter activity. Moreover, a strong correlation was found between PKCϵ and phospho-Ser-727 (active) STAT1 levels in breast cancer cells. Our results may have significant implications for the development of approaches to target PKCϵ and its effectors in cancer therapeutics.

p42/p44 MAPK-mediated Stat3Ser727 phosphorylation is required for progestin-induced full activation of Stat3 and breast cancer growth.

Stat3 is a signaling node for multiple oncogenic pathways and is therefore frequently active in breast cancer. As experimental and clinical evidence reveals that progestins are key players in controlling mammary gland tumorigenesis, we studied Stat3 participation in this event. We have previously shown that progestins induce Stat3Tyr705 phosphorylation and its transcriptional activation in breast cancer cells. In this study, we demonstrate that progestins also induce Stat3 phosphorylation at Ser727 residue, which occurs via activation of c-Src/p42/p44 MAPK pathways in murine progestin-dependent C4HD cells and in T-47D cells. Expression of a Stat3S727A vector, which carries a serine-to-alanine substitution at codon 727, shows that Stat3Ser727 phosphorylation is required for full transcriptional activation of cyclin D1 gene expression by progestins and for in vivo Stat3 recruitment on cyclin D1 promoter. Transfection of Stat3S727A in murine and human breast cancer cells abolished progestin-induced in vitro and in vivo growth. Moreover, we found a positive correlation between progesterone receptor expression and nuclear localization of Stat3Ser727 phosphorylation in breast cancer biopsies. These data highlight Stat3 phosphorylation in Ser727 residue as a nongenomic action by progestins, necessary to promote breast cancer growth.

Targeting Stat3 induces senescence in tumor cells and elicits prophylactic and therapeutic immune responses against breast cancer growth mediated by NK cells and CD4+ T cells.

Aberrant Stat3 activation and signaling contribute to malignant transformation by promoting cell cycle progression, inhibiting apoptosis, and mediating tumor immune evasion. Stat3 inhibition in tumor cells induces the expression of chemokines and proinflammatory cytokines, so we proposed to apply Stat3-inhibited breast cancer cells as a source of immunogens to induce an antitumor immune response. Studies were performed in two murine breast cancer models in which Stat3 is activated: progestin-dependent C4HD cells and 4T1 cells. We immunized BALB/c mice with irradiated cancer cells previously transfected with a dominant-negative Stat3 vector (Stat3Y705F) in either a prophylactic or a therapeutic manner. Prophylactic administration of breast cancer cells transfected with Stat3Y705F (Stat3Y705F-breast cancer cells) inhibited primary tumor growth compared with administration of empty vector-transfected cells in both models. In the 4T1 model, 50% of the challenged mice were tumor free, and the incidence of metastasis decreased by 90%. In vivo assays of C4HD tumors showed that the antitumor immune response involves the participation of CD4(+) T cells and cytotoxic NK cells. Therapeutic immunization with Stat3Y705F-breast cancer cells inhibited tumor growth, promoted tumor cell differentiation, and decreased metastasis. Furthermore, inhibition of Stat3 activation in breast cancer cells induced cellular senescence, contributing to their immunogenic phenotype. In this work, we provide preclinical proof of concept that ablating Stat3 signaling in breast cancer cells results in an effective immunotherapy against breast cancer growth and metastasis. Moreover, our findings showing that Stat3 inactivation results in induction of a cellular senescence program disclose a potential mechanism for immunotherapy research.

Rac signaling in breast cancer: a tale of GEFs and GAPs.

Rac GTPases, small G-proteins widely implicated in tumorigenesis and metastasis, transduce signals from tyrosine-kinase, G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), and integrins, and control a number of essential cellular functions including motility, adhesion, and proliferation. Deregulation of Rac signaling in cancer is generally a consequence of enhanced upstream inputs from tyrosine-kinase receptors, PI3K or Guanine nucleotide Exchange Factors (GEFs), or reduced Rac inactivation by GTPase Activating Proteins (GAPs). In breast cancer cells Rac1 is a downstream effector of ErbB receptors and mediates migratory responses by ErbB1/EGFR ligands such as EGF or TGFα and ErbB3 ligands such as heregulins. Recent advances in the field led to the identification of the Rac-GEF P-Rex1 as an essential mediator of Rac1 responses in breast cancer cells. P-Rex1 is activated by the PI3K product PIP3 and Gßγ subunits, and integrates signals from ErbB receptors and GPCRs. Most notably, P-Rex1 is highly overexpressed in human luminal breast tumors, particularly those expressing ErbB2 and estrogen receptor (ER). The P-Rex1/Rac signaling pathway may represent an attractive target for breast cancer therapy.

Progesterone receptor induces ErbB-2 nuclear translocation to promote breast cancer growth via a novel transcriptional effect: ErbB-2 function as a coactivator of Stat3.

Progesterone receptor (PR) and ErbB-2 bidirectional cross talk participates in breast cancer development. Here, we identified a new mechanism of the PR and ErbB-2 interaction involving the PR induction of ErbB-2 nuclear translocation and the assembly of a transcriptional complex in which ErbB-2 acts as a coactivator of Stat3. We also highlighted that the function of ErbB-2 as a Stat3 coactivator drives progestin-induced cyclin D1 promoter activation. Notably, PR is also recruited together with Stat3 and ErbB-2 to the cyclin D1 promoter, unraveling a new and unexpected nonclassical PR genomic mechanism. The assembly of the nuclear Stat3/ErbB-2 transcriptional complex plays a key role in the proliferation of breast tumors with functional PR and ErbB-2. Our findings reveal a novel therapeutic intervention for PR- and ErbB-2-positive breast tumors via the specific blockage of ErbB-2 nuclear translocation.

Transactivation of ErbB-2 induced by tumor necrosis factor alpha promotes NF-kappaB activation and breast cancer cell proliferation.

Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha) is a pleiotropic cytokine which, acting locally, induces tumor growth. Accumulating evidence, including our findings, showed that TNFalpha is mitogenic in breast cancer cells in vitro and in vivo. In the present study, we explored TNFalpha involvement on highly aggressive ErbB-2-overexpressing breast cancer cells. We found that TNFalpha induces ErbB-2 phosphorylation in mouse breast cancer C4HD cells and in the human breast cancer cell lines SK-BR-3 and BT-474. ErbB-2 phosphorylation at Tyr877 residue was mediated by TNFalpha-induced c-Src activation. Moreover, TNFalpha promoted ErbB-2/ErbB-3 heterocomplex formation, Akt activation and NF-kappaB transcriptional activation. Inhibition of ErbB-2 by addition of AG825, an epidermal growth factor receptor/ErbB-2-tyrosine kinase inhibitor, or knockdown of ErbB-2 by RNA interference strategy, blocked TNFalpha-induced NF-kappaB activation and proliferation. However, the humanized monoclonal antibody anti-ErbB-2 Herceptin could not inhibit TNFalpha ability to promote breast cancer growth. Interestingly, our work disclosed that TNFalpha is able to transactivate ErbB-2 and use it as an obligatory downstream signaling molecule in the generation of mitogenic signals. As TNFalpha has been shown to be present in the tumor microenvironment of a significant proportion of human infiltrating breast cancers, our findings would have clinical implication in ErbB-2-positive breast cancer treatment.

Activation of Stat3 by heregulin/ErbB-2 through the co-option of progesterone receptor signaling drives breast cancer growth.

Cross talk between the steroid hormone receptors for estrogen and progesterone (PR) and the ErbB family of receptor tyrosine kinases appears to be a hallmark of breast cancer growth, but its underlying mechanism remains poorly explored. Here we have highlighted signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (Stat3) as a key protein activated by heregulin (HRG), a ligand of the ErbB receptors, through co-opted, ligand-independent PR function as a signaling molecule. Stat3 activation was an absolute requirement in HRG-induced mammary tumor growth, and targeting Stat3 effectively inhibited growth of breast cancer cells with activated HRG/ErbB-2 and PR. Our findings unravel a novel potential therapeutic intervention in PR- and ErbB-2-positive breast tumors, involving the specific blockage of PR signaling activity.

TNF alpha acting on TNFR1 promotes breast cancer growth via p42/P44 MAPK, JNK, Akt and NF-kappa B-dependent pathways.

Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF alpha) enhances proliferation of chemically-induced mammary tumors and of T47D human cell line through not fully understood pathways. Here, we explored the intracellular signaling pathways triggered by TNF alpha, the participation of TNF alpha receptor (TNFR) 1 and TNFR2 and the molecular mechanism leading to breast cancer growth. We demonstrate that TNFalpha induced proliferation of C4HD murine mammary tumor cells and of T47D cells through the activation of p42/p44 MAPK, JNK, PI3-K/Akt pathways and nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-kappa B) transcriptional activation. A TNF alpha-specific mutein selectively binding to TNFR1 induced p42/p44 MAPK, JNK, Akt activation, NF-kappa B transcriptional activation and cell proliferation, just like wild-type TNF alpha, while a mutein selective for TNFR2 induced only p42/p44 MAPK activation. Interestingly, blockage of TNFR1 or TNFR2 with specific antibodies was enough to impair TNF alpha signaling and biological effect. Moreover, in vivo TNF alpha administration supported C4HD tumor growth. We also demonstrated, for the first time, that injection of a selective inhibitor of NF-kappa B activity, Bay 11-7082, resulted in regression of TNF alpha-promoted tumor. Bay 11-7082 blocked TNF alpha capacity to induce cell proliferation and up-regulation of cyclin D1 and of Bcl-xLin vivo and in vitro. Our results reveal evidence for TNF alpha as a breast tumor promoter, and provide novel data for a future therapeutic approach using TNF alpha antagonists and NF-kappa B pharmacological inhibitors in established breast cancer treatment.

Relationship between steroidogenesis and spermiation in Rana catesbeiana and Leptodactylus ocellatus.

The present study employs an in vitro system to analyse the role of steroid hormones in hCG-induced spermiation in two species of anuran amphibian: Rana catesbeiana and Leptodactylus ocellatus. In vitro spermiation was induced with 10 IU hCG and the effect of different steroid-biosynthesis inhibitors was analysed. Cyanoketone (10(-5)M), an inhibitor of 3-oxo-4-ene steroid biosynthesis, did not block hCG-inducing activity even when biosynthesis of androgen was significantly reduced. These results clearly showed that, in both species, spermiation-inducing action of hCG does not depend on the biosynthesis of 3-oxo-4-ene steroids. Moreover, when combined inhibitors, aminoglutethimide (10(-5)M) plus cyanoketone (10(-5)M), were employed, spermiation evoked by hCG was not modified while hCG-induced androgen secretion significantly decreased. Additionally, none of the steroids used, progesterone, 17, 20 alpha-dihydroxy-4-pregnen-3-one, testosterone and 5 alpha-dihydrotestosterone, were able to induce spermiation in the absence of hCG, confirming that steroids are not involved in that process. In conclusion, as previously described in Bufo arenarum, in L. ocellatus and R. catesbeiana hCG-induced spermiation does not depend on steroid biosynthesis.

Effect of human gonadotropins on spermiation and androgen biosynthesis in the testis of the toad Bufo arenarum (Amphibia, Anura).

This paper analyzes, in the toad Bufo arenarum, the effect on spermiation and androgen secretion of two human recombinant gonadotropins, human recombinant LH (hrLH) and human recombinant FSH (hrFSH) as well as the well-known spermiation-inducing hormone, human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). For this purpose, testes were incubated with different concentrations of hrLH (0.01-2.5 microg/ml) and hrFSH (0.05-5 microg/ml), and results were compared with those obtained with 2.5 microg/ml hCG. Spermiation was most efficiently stimulated by hrFSH, which elicited a higher response than either hrLH or hCG. Both hrFSH and hrLH produced a bell-shaped dose-response curve, with a 50% inhibition on spermiation at a concentration twice higher than that necessary to get the highest response. However, none of the gonadotropins yielded a biphasic response on androgen secretion, hrLH producing the highest response at a concentration that evoked a 70% inhibition in the spermiation test. Regarding steroidogenesis, hrLH and hrFSH were more active than hCG. Taken together, the results described in this paper suggest that, in B. arenarum, spermiation and androgen secretion are mediated by different receptors. After comparing the effects of recombinant hormones, we conclude that hrFSH has a greater effect on spermiation than hCG or hrLH.