A submerged 7000-year-old village and seawall demonstrate earliest known coastal defence against sea-level rise.

We report the results of underwater archaeological investigations at the submerged Neolithic settlement of Tel Hreiz (7500 - 7000 BP), off the Carmel coast of Israel. The underwater archaeological site has yielded well-preserved architectural, artefactual, faunal and human remains. We examine and discuss the notable recent discovery of a linear, boulder-built feature >100m long, located seaward of the settlement. Based on archaeological context, mode of construction and radiometric dating, we demonstrate the feature was contemporary with the inundated Neolithic settlement and conclude that it served as a seawall, built to protect the village against Mediterranean Sea-level rise. The seawall is unique for the period and is the oldest known coastal defence worldwide. Its length, use of large non-local boulders and specific arrangement in the landscape reflect the extensive effort invested by the Neolithic villagers in its conception, organisation and construction. However, this distinct social action and display of resilience proved a temporary solution and ultimately the village was inundated and abandoned.

Pigeons at the edge of the empire: Bioarchaeological evidences for extensive management of pigeons in a Byzantine desert settlement in the southern Levant.

Metric data of 6th century CE pigeons from the Negev Desert, Israel, are employed to test competing hypotheses on flock management strategies: that directed selection for size or shape took place under intensive management; or, alternatively, that stabilizing selection was a stronger determinant of size and shape under extensive management conditions. The results of the analysis support the second hypothesis by demonstrating that the Byzantine Negev pigeons were like wild pigeon (Columba livia) in shape, albeit small-sized. The inferred extensive management system is then discussed in the context of pigeon domestication and human micro-ecologies in marginal regions.

Eastern Mediterranean Mobility in the Bronze and Early Iron Ages: Inferences from Ancient DNA of Pigs and Cattle.

The Late Bronze of the Eastern Mediterranean (1550-1150 BCE) was a period of strong commercial relations and great prosperity, which ended in collapse and migration of groups to the Levant. Here we aim at studying the translocation of cattle and pigs during this period. We sequenced the first ancient mitochondrial and Y chromosome DNA of cattle from Greece and Israel and compared the results with morphometric analysis of the metacarpal in cattle. We also increased previous ancient pig DNA datasets from Israel and extracted the first mitochondrial DNA for samples from Greece. We found that pigs underwent a complex translocation history, with links between Anatolia with southeastern Europe in the Bronze Age, and movement from southeastern Europe to the Levant in the Iron I (ca. 1150-950 BCE). Our genetic data did not indicate movement of cattle between the Aegean region and the southern Levant. We detected the earliest evidence for crossbreeding between taurine and zebu cattle in the Iron IIA (ca. 900 BCE). In light of archaeological and historical evidence on Egyptian imperial domination in the region in the Late Bronze Age, we suggest that Egypt attempted to expand dry farming in the region in a period of severe droughts.

Thermal inactivation of Escherichia coli in camel milk.

Camels subsist and produce milk in desert pastures not utilized by other domesticated herbivores. Developing the camel milk industry can improve the economy of desert inhabitants. To comply with sanitary ordinances, camel milk is pasteurized by procedures specified for bovine milk. It is widely accepted that milk composition might affect bacterial thermal death time (TDT). Camel and bovine milks markedly differ in their chemical composition, yet data regarding TDT values of bacteria in camel milk is missing. As a first step toward developing specific heat treatments appropriate for camel milk, TDT curves of Escherichia coli in artificially contaminated camel and cow milks have been compared. Heating the milks to temperatures ranging from 58 to 65 degrees C yields similar thermal death curves and derived D- and z-values. These findings suggest that, in this temperature range, E. coli might behave similarly in bovine and camel milk. Additional TDT studies of various pathogenic species in camel milk are required before establishing pasteurization conditions of camel milk.

Effects of Yeasts on Survival of Staphylococcus aureus in Pickled Cheese Brine.

The interactions between staphylococci and yeasts in pickled cheese brine were investigated. Above pH 5, Staphylococcus aureus grew in pickled cheese brine. Acid-consuming yeasts increased the pH of the brine to a level which enabled development of staphylococci. This indicates the need to monitor yeast contamination in cheeses preserved by the combination of acid and high salt.

Seasonal and Processing Influences on Bacterial Count of Raw and Processed Milk.

An increase in total counts of raw milk was detected during summer in comparison to winter. The higher summer temperature did not affect the numbers of coliforms and staphylococci. The microbial contamination of pasteurized milk did not change significantly during the year. All bacterial counts increased during the flow of milk through the various systems of the dairy plant before the pasteurizer. It was shown that pipe lines could cause contamination of milk, especially at the beginning of flow after the line was temporarily shut down. A correlation between numbers of coliforms and staphylococci was found for both raw and pasteurized milk.