Copra Meal: A Review of Its Production, Properties, and Prospects.

Copra meal, the byproduct of coconut oil production, has been widely available at low cost but has been underutilized, with huge portions still becoming waste. Extensive research on different species have been performed to improve its use as an alternative feed ingredient, aiming to reduce the impact of fluctuating feed prices in some parts of the world where coconut is a major commodity. As for any biological product, the physical and chemical properties of copra meal play a crucial role in its use and limitations. In the case of copra meal, studies have found that additional treatments are needed to improve its nutritional composition and make it readily and efficiently available for ruminant and monogastric animals, poultry, and aquaculture applications. This paper presents a summary of up-to-date information on the physical and chemical characteristics of the product, as well as discussions on the various methods employed to improve and optimize its biological value as animal feed. There have been limited studies that have explored other effective and economical means of utilizing copra meal outside the livestock and feed industry. Hence, this paper also aims to provide a lens on future prospects and diverse applications involving copra meal, as well as to present the gaps and challenges that have to be addressed to maximize its product value and biological potential.

Modeling a localized metropolitan food system in the Midwest USA: Life cycle impacts of scenarios for Des Moines, Iowa.

Food systems are energy-intensive, causing ≈25 % of anthropogenic global warming potential (GWP) and contributing to challenges across the food-energy-water nexus. The state of Iowa, USA, is of particular interest as a rainfed agricultural region of the upper Midwest; despite its highly productive landscape, a large proportion of food consumed by Iowa residents is imported. This study focused on the Des Moines Metropolitan Statistical Area (DM-MSA), a six-county area in central Iowa with a 2020 population of ≈700,000. A life cycle assessment approach was used to quantify environmental impacts (GWP, fossil energy and water consumption, land use); scenarios modeled provision and consumption of 50 % of nutritional requirements for the current DM-MSA population by food group (e.g., grains, proteins, vegetables). The four DM-MSA food system scenarios were: 1) current conditions (baseline), 2) local production for 50 % of food, 3) consumption changed to follow USA dietary guidelines, and 4) combined changes to production and consumption. Localizing food production reduced all environmental impacts more than following USA dietary guidelines. Compared to the baseline, 50 % local production scenarios reduced GWP and energy consumption (18-24 %) and water use (35-41 %) annually. Decreases by food group were least for protein (-10 % GWP) and greatest for fruits and vegetables (-58-62 % GWP). Local scenario alternatives could further reduce some environmental impacts if paired with a nutritionally- and environmentally-optimized diet (EAT-Lancet) providing the greatest change (-30-38 % for GWP and energy use) compared to the local scenario. A 50 % local production scenario for the DM-MSA could decrease GWP by 102 million CO2eq yr-1 and water use by 44 billion L yr-1. However, this would require dietary changes based on seasonal food availability. Further development and co-simulation with other metropolitan-scale biophysical and social models will enhance understanding of food system drivers and support effective decision-making for urban food system improvements in the Midwest.

Hepatic transcriptome analyses of juvenile white bass (Morone chrysops) when fed diets where fish meal is partially or totally replaced by alternative protein sources.

White bass (Morone chrysops) are a popular sportfish throughout the southern United States, and one parent of the commercially-successful hybrid striped bass (M. chrysops ♂ x M. saxatilis ♀). Currently, white bass are cultured using diets formulated for other carnivorous fish, such as largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) or hybrid striped bass and contain a significant percentage of marine fish meal. Since there are no studies regarding the utilization of alternative proteins in this species, we evaluated the global gene expression of white bass fed diets in which fish meal was partially or totally replaced by various combinations of soybean meal, poultry by-product meal, canola meal, soy protein concentrate, wheat gluten, or a commercial protein blend (Pro-Cision™). Six isonitrogenous (40% protein), isolipidic (11%), and isocaloric (17.1 kJ/g) diets were formulated to meet the known nutrient and energy requirements of largemouth bass and hybrid striped bass using nutrient availability data for most of the dietary ingredients. One of the test diets consisted exclusively of plant protein sources. Juvenile white bass (40.2 g initial weight) were stocked into a flow-through aquaculture system (three tanks/diet; 10 fish/tank) and fed the test diets twice daily to satiation for 60 days. RNA sequencing and bioinformatic analyses revealed significant differentially expressed genes between all test diets when compared to fish meal control. A total of 1,260 differentially expressed genes were identified, with major ontology relating to cell cycle and metabolic processes as well as immune gene functions. This data will be useful as a resource for future refinements to moronid diet formulation, as marine fish meal becomes limiting and plant ingredients are increasingly added as a reliable protein source.

Pre-harvest and post-harvest farmer experiences and practices in five maize growing regions in Ghana.

Maize is a major staple crop mainly produced by smallholder farmers in developing nations. Grain losses happen in Sub-Saharan Africa, and therefore the objective of this study was to assess the different kinds of pre-harvest and post-harvest losses that maize farmers in Ghana encounter. The storage practices, and farmers' awareness and knowledge of mycotoxin contamination in maize were also assessed. The study area had five regions, and three districts per region. The study sites were selected purposefully because of the prior knowledge of farmers on maize production. A semi-structured questionnaire was used to collect the data, and a purposive sampling technique was used to select 75 maize farmers for the interview. The male maize farmers were many compared to females. Over 70% of farmers were at least 40 years. Over 50% of farmers had basic education except those in the northern region. Grain yields were generally low, and at least 60% of farmers experienced post-harvest loss. The period of grain storage and the storage techniques were the prerogatives of the farmers but largely dependent on farmers' financial status. Farmers basically used synthetic chemicals, and a few of the farmers decided to use plant materials during grain treatment.

Impacts of Ethanol Production and Drying Conditions on the Chemical, Physical, and Flowability Properties of Distillers Dried Grains With Solubles.

The production of corn-based ethanol in the U.S. has dramatically increasied in recent years, and consequently so has the quantity of coproduct feed ingredients generated from this segment of the grain processing industry. These streams are almost exclusively utilized as livestock feed, which partially offsets the need for corn in feed rations, but other value-added applications do exist. Because of its use as an animal feed, considerable research has been conducted into the nutritional properties, but to a lesser extent the physical and flowability properties of commercially-produced distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS). There can be occasions when the quality of coproducts is not consistent. Thus questions regarding the influence of processing operations on the resulting coproduct characteristics must be examined. The objective of this research was to conduct extensive physical and flowability property analyses on DDGS samples which were produced under varying conditions in a pilot plant-scale ethanol plant, in order to investigate the effects of various manufacturing operations (specifically ethanol production and drying conditions) on the resulting properties of the DDGS. Using various laboratory methods, a variety of properties, including bulk density and angle of repose, were determined. DDGS fat content was highly correlated with aerated and packed bulk densities, which indicates that fat level plays a key role in flowability behavior. Future studies should examine this potential relationship in more depth, especially as the industry has moved to fat reduction via oil separation processes.

Effects of different levels of vitamin B6 in tank water on the Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus): growth performance, blood biochemical parameters, intestine and liver histology, and intestinal enzyme activity.

According to the importance of vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) as a water-soluble vitamin on the physiological conditions of aquatic animals, the present study aimed to investigate effects of different concentrations of this vitamin in recycle system culture water on the Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Treatments including 0 (control), 10, 20, 30, and 40 mg L-1 vitamin B6 were adjusted in triplicate recirculating systems. Each of the experimental tanks (100 L) was stocked 15 fingerling Nile tilapia during 60-day experimental period. According to the findings, weight gain in treatments of 30 and 40 mg L-1 pyridoxine was significantly higher than the other treatments while blood cortisol hormone in the treatment of 40 mg L-1 was significantly highest among the treatments. In addition, mid-intestine trypsin activity in the treatment of 40 mg L-1 was significantly higher than the other treatments. The histological analysis of the intestine showed that the number of mucus-secreting cells significantly decreased in treatments of 30 and 40 mg L-1. Our findings here suggest that pyridoxine can possibly be absorbed by the Nile tilapia's body through culture water and it seems 20-30 mg L-1 pyridoxine in the culture water is the optimal concentration for the Nile tilapia juveniles in recycle system culture.

Cost Assessment of Five Different Maize Grain Handling Techniques to Reduce Postharvest Losses from Insect Contamination.

Farmers in developing nations encounter high postharvest losses mainly attributable to the lack of modern techniques for threshing, cleaning, grading, and grain storage. Mechanized handling of grain in developing countries is rare, although the technology is effective against insects and pest infestations. The objective was to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of five grain handling techniques that have the ability to reduce postharvest losses from insect infestation. The five methods were metal silo plus all accessories (m. silo + acc.), metal silo only (m. silo), woven polypropylene plus phosphine (w. PP. + Phos.), woven polypropylene only (w. PP.), and Purdue Improved Crop Storage bags only (PICS). The functional unit used was handling 1 kg of maize grain. The cost analysis of each technique was calculated based on equations using a spreadsheet. The annual capital and operational costs of handling using m. silo + acc. or m. silo were very high, unlike the PICS, w. PP. + Phos., or w. PP. The annual capital and operational costs decreased as production scale increased. Food security (due to reduced insects and pest infestations) and financial prospects of farmers can improve when the grain is mechanically handled with m. silo + acc. or m. silo.

Overview of Some Recent Advances in Improving Water and Energy Efficiencies in Food Processing Factories.

Rapid development of food factories in both developed and developing countries, owing to continued growth in the world population, plays a critical role in the food supply chain, including environmental issues such as pollution, emissions, energy and water consumption, and thus food system sustainability. The objective of this study was to briefly review various environmental aspects of food processing operations, including aquatic, atmospheric, and solid waste generation, and also to discuss several strategies that many companies are using to reduce these negative impacts as well as to improve water and energy efficiency. To obtain higher energy efficiencies in food processing factories, two key operations can play critical roles: non-thermal processing (e.g., high pressure processing) and membrane processes. For higher water efficiency, reconditioning treatments resulting in water reuse for other purposes can be conducted through chemical and/or physical treatments. With regards to reducing volumes of processing food waste, two approaches include value-added by-product applications (e.g., animal feed) and/or utilization of food waste for energy production. Finally, we present trends for lowering operational costs in food processing.

Integrating Environmental and Social Sustainability Into Performance Evaluation: A Balanced Scorecard-Based Grey-DANP Approach for the Food Industry.

In addition to retaining high levels of customer satisfaction, sustainability of businesses is also heavily reliant on the efficiency of their internal and external processes. Continuous performance evaluations using key performance metrics to leverage operations are essential in maintaining a sustainable business while achieving growth objectives for revenue and profitability. Traditionally, companies have considered various financial criteria, quality characteristics, and targeted levels of service as their primary factors for performance evaluation. However, increasing environmental and social awareness and accompanying governmental legislations are now requiring companies to integrate these two aspects into their performance evaluations. With this motivation, this study proposes a Balanced Scorecard (BSC)-based approach combining Decision-Making Trial and Evaluation Laboratory (DEMATEL) and Analytic Network Process (ANP) methodologies for performance evaluation. The grey system theory has been utilized in order to capture the vagueness and the uncertainty in decision making. To demonstrate the functionality of the approach, a case study is conducted on a U.S.-based food franchise. The results of the algorithm and a discussion elaborating on the findings are provided.

Kinetic Modeling of Corn Fermentation with S. cerevisiae Using a Variable Temperature Strategy.

While fermentation is usually done at a fixed temperature, in this study, the effect of having a controlled variable temperature was analyzed. A nonlinear system was used to model batch ethanol fermentation, using corn as substrate and the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, at five different fixed and controlled variable temperatures. The lower temperatures presented higher ethanol yields but took a longer time to reach equilibrium. Higher temperatures had higher initial growth rates, but the decay of yeast cells was faster compared to the lower temperatures. However, in a controlled variable temperature model, the temperature decreased with time with the initial value of 40 ∘ C. When analyzing a time window of 60 h, the ethanol production increased 20% compared to the batch with the highest temperature; however, the yield was still 12% lower compared to the 20 ∘ C batch. When the 24 h’ simulation was analyzed, the controlled model had a higher ethanol concentration compared to both fixed temperature batches.

Production of Barbari Bread (Traditional Iranian Bread) Using Different Levels of Distillers Dried Grains with Solubles (DDGS) and Sodium Stearoyl Lactate (SSL).

Bread is one of the oldest foods known throughout history and even though it is one of the principal types of staple around the world, it usually lacks enough nutrients, including protein and fiber. As such, fortification is one of the best solutions to overcome this problem. Thus, the objective this study was to examine the effect of three levels of distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS) (0%, 10% and 20%) in conjunction with three levels of SSL (sodium stearoyl lactate) (0%, 2% and 5%) on physical and chemical properties of Barbari bread (traditional Iranian bread). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to evaluate DDGS and Sodium Stearoyl-2-Lactilate (SSL), as sources of fortification in Barbari bread. The results showed that incorporation of 20% of DDGS and 0% SSL caused a significant increase in the amount of fiber and protein. As for the physical attributes, using higher amount of DDGS caused a darker color, and as for the texture parameters, the highest firmness was measured when 10% DDGS and 5% of SSL were used. Different Mixolab and Rapid Visco Analyzer (RVA) parameters also were measured with varying results. The findings of this study show that DDGS can be a valuable source of fiber and protein, which can be used as a cost effective source to fortify cereal-based products.

Techno-Economic Analysis of Biofuel Production from Macroalgae (Seaweed).

A techno-economic evaluation of bioenergy production from macroalgae was carried out in this study. Six different scenarios were examined for the production of different energy products and by-products. Seaweed was produced either via the longline method or the grid method. Final products of these scenarios were either ethanol from fermentation, or electricity from anaerobic digestion (AD). By-products were digestate for AD, and animal feed, or electricity and digestate, for the fermentation pathway. Bioenergy breakeven selling prices were investigated according to the cost components and the feedstock supply chain, while suggestions for potential optimization of costs were provided. The lowest production level of dry seaweed to meet 0.93 ($/L) for ethanol fuel and 0.07 $/kW-h for electricity was found to be 0.68 and 3.7 million tonnes (dry basis), respectively. At the moment, biofuel production from seaweed has been determined not to be economically feasible, but achieving economic production may be possible by lowering production costs and increasing the area under cultivation.

Profitability Analysis of Soybean Oil Processes.

Soybean oil production is the basic process for soybean applications. Cash flow analysis is used to estimate the profitability of a manufacturing venture. Besides capital investments, operating costs, and revenues, the interest rate is the factor to estimate the net present value (NPV), break-even points, and payback time; which are benchmarks for profitability evaluation. The positive NPV and reasonable payback time represent a profitable process, and provide an acceptable projection for real operating. Additionally, the capacity of the process is another critical factor. The extruding-expelling process and hexane extraction are the two typical approaches used in industry. When the capacities of annual oil production are larger than 12 and 173 million kg respectively, these two processes are profitable. The solvent free approach, known as enzyme assisted aqueous extraction process (EAEP), is profitable when the capacity is larger than 17 million kg of annual oil production.

Periodic Physical Disturbance: An Alternative Method for Controlling Sitophilus zeamais (Maize Weevil) Infestation.

Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky is the most important insect pest of stored maize in tropical regions. The objective of this study was to determine the practicality of periodic physical disturbance on S. zeamais mortality and its adoption by smallholder farmers in developing countries. In this experiment, treatments and control were arranged in a randomized block design with three replications and three storage times in three regions of Tanzania. Region was used as the blocking variable. A total of 108 clean 20-L plastic containers were each loaded with 10 kg of fresh white dent corn and 0.50 kg of maize infested with S. zeamais. For the treatment, containers were disturbed twice a day, whereas for the controls the containers were not disturbed until the end of storage. The overall mortality rate (%) after 30, 60, and 90 days of storage were 88%, 96%, and 98%, respectively. A statistically significant difference (p < 0.05) was observed for the number of live S. zeamais between the control and experimental treatments. Additionally, the number of live S. zeamais in the treatment significantly decreased as storage time increased. This study shows the potential of a feasible, simple, affordable, and effective method of protecting maize grain for small-holder farmers in developing countries without using chemicals.

Using alternative flours as partial replacement of barbari bread formulation (traditional Iranian bread).

Wheat flour is used in most of breads because of its nutrient components and high availability, but different problems are associated with this flour, such as allergies and loss of nutrient components due to milling and refining. In this study, five flours were used (20 %) in combination with wheat flour (80 %).to produce traditional Iranian Barbari bread. These included amaranth, barley, DDGS, rye and oat. Compositional measurements of moisture, fat, fiber, protein and ash content were taken. Physical tests were done to understand the changes in color, thickness, and texture. Results showed that the gluten content of each flour had a significant effect on the texture and thickness of the bread. Bread made with rye flour had the highest L* and that made with oat flour had the highest a*. As for b*, the highest was for the bread made with DDGS. It was also determined that bread made with 20 % DDGS and 80 % wheat flour had the highest fiber and moisture content, while that made with amaranth had the highest ash content, and that with rye had the highest fat. Adding different flours to wheat changed the physical and chemical attributes of final producst significantly.

Changes in chemical and physical properties of Latin American wheat flour based tortillas substituted with different levels of distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS).

Tortilla is the most popular type of bread both in South and Central America. Since the demand for this bread among different classes of society is significant, improving its nutrient content could be important. Distillers dried grains with solubles is good source of fiber and protein, and can be used in the fortification of tortilla. In this study, three levels of DDGS (0, 10 and 20 %) were substituted for wheat flour and the physical and chemical properties of the resulting products were evaluated. Results showed that for the 20 % DDGS level, minimum force was required to rupture the tortilla. The color of the tortillas substituted with 10 and 20 % DDGS were darker, being 64.11 and 59.99, respectively (P < 0.05). As for chemical properties, the samples fortified with 10 and 20 % DDGS had higher protein (9.35 and 10.78 % dried basis), fiber (2.21 and 2.33 % dried basis) and fat (23.60 and 24.65 % dried basis) values at P < 0.05. Thus, it appeared that using DDGS in wheat tortillas can improve some of the nutritional values such as protein and fiber as well as the textural properties of these breads. Further work should examine consumer acceptability of these products.

Effect of co-products of enzyme-assisted aqueous extraction of soybeans on ethanol production in dry-grind corn fermentation.

Enzyme-assisted aqueous extraction processing (EAEP) is an environmentally-friendly alternative to solvent and mechanical oil extraction methods, and can achieve ∼ 97% oil recovery from soybeans. The present study utilized soy skim (protein rich) and insoluble fiber (IF; carbohydrate rich), both co-products of EAEP, in dry-grind corn fermentation. The effects of adding soy skim and untreated IF (UIF), either separately or together, and adding pretreated IF (TIF), on ethanol production were investigated. Maximum ethanol production was achieved when UIF and skim were slurried together (corn-to-UIF ratio 1:0.16; skim-to-UIF ratio 6.5:1) and when fiber-hydrolyzing enzymes were added to corn fermentation. This modification to corn fermentation increased ethanol yield by 20%, ethanol production rate by 3%, and decreased fermentation time by 38 h compared to corn-only fermentation. An attempt was also made to utilize pentoses (from soy skim and IF) in integrated corn-soy fermentation slurry by an additional Escherichia coli KO11 fermentation step.

Aerobic stability of distillers wet grains as influenced by temperature.

BACKGROUND: The storability of distillers wet grains (DWG) influences the economic, energetic, and carbon balances of fuel ethanol production, yet there are limited published data on the deterioration of DWG following its production. We used biogenic CO(2) production to assess the aerobic stability of DWG incubated at three temperatures (12 °C, 22 °C, 32 °C) and compared CO(2) production over time to the appearance of mold and changes in DWG color parameters. RESULTS: CO(2) production and mold colonization indicate that at temperatures near 12 °C, the aerobic stability of DWG was high and that it can be stored for at least a 10-day period. At temperatures close to 22 °C, the onset of increased microbial activity and visible mold colonization occurred between 4 and 7 days and both activity and mold ratings were very high by the ninth day in all three experiments. At 32 °C, 2 days may be a more appropriate limit for storage. CONCLUSION: Temperature and time interact in a nonlinear fashion that permits the prediction of DWG stability boundaries. The simple visual appearance of mold appears to be a reasonable indicator that correlates well (r = 0.694) with CO(2) production, a measure of the aerobic stability of DWG.