Effect of electrode parameters in the electro-production of reactive oxidizing species via boron-doped diamond under batch mode.

Ozone and hydroxyl radicals (• OH) are powerful reactive oxidizing species (ROS) that are commonly utilized in water disinfection. The electrochemical advanced oxidation process (EAOP) is often used to generate such oxidants, whereas optimizing its experimental setup and electrode parameters plays a crucial role in its performance. This research aims to find the optimal setup for ROS generation process from tap water via the boron-doped diamond. The effect of electrode's active area, type of electrode substrates (mesh or sheet), type of mesh substrate (rolled and unrolled), and number of anodes and cathodes are examined. The results showed that the use of two long-rolled BDD/Nb meshes as anode and one long-rolled mesh as a cathode gives the optimal performance of electrolysis process at 15 V potential and 3 min. These results will provide a start for developing a cost accepted, health-safe, household disinfection device that reduces susceptibility to human life-threatening waterborne diseases. PRACTITIONER POINTS: This research aims to find the optimal setup for ROS generation process from tap water via the boron-doped diamond. The effect of electrode's parameters on the electro-production of ROS is examined. The best performance is achieved using rolled mesh electrodes. Two long-rolled BDD/Nb meshes as anode electrodes and one long-rolled mesh cathode electrode give the optimal electrolysis process performance.

Preclinical Testing of Boron-Doped Diamond Electrodes for Root Canal Disinfection-A Series of Preliminary Studies.

While numerous approaches have meanwhile been described, sufficient disinfection of root canals is still challenging, mostly due to limited access and the porous structure of dentin. Instead of using different rinsing solutions and activated irrigation, the electrolysis of saline using boron-doped diamond (BDD) electrodes thereby producing reactive oxygen species may be an alternative approach. In a first step, experiments using extracted human teeth incubated with multispecies bacterial biofilm were conducted. The charge quantities required for electrochemical disinfection of root canals were determined, which were subsequently applied in an animal trial using an intraoral canine model. It could be shown that also under realistic clinical conditions, predictable disinfection of root canals could be achieved using BDD electrodes. The parameters required are in the range of 5.5 to 7.0 V and 9 to 38 mA, applied for 2.5 to 6.0 min with approximately 5 to 8 mL of saline. The direct generation of disinfective agents inside the root canal seems to be advantageous especially in situations with compromised access and limited canal sizes. The biologic effect with respect to the host reaction on BDD-mediated disinfection is yet to be examined.

Carbonate-Induced Electrosynthesis of Hydrogen Peroxide via Two-Electron Water Oxidation.

Electrochemical synthesis of hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ), via the two-electron water oxidation reaction (2e- WOR), is an attractive method for the sustainable production of valuable chemicals in place of oxygen during water electrolysis. While the majority of 2e- WOR studies have focussed on electrocatalyst design, little research has been carried out on the selection of the supporting electrolyte. In this work, we investigate the impact of potassium carbonate (K2 CO3 ) electrolytes, and their key properties, on H2 O2 production. We found that at electrolyte pH values (>9.5) where the carbonate anion (CO3 2- ) was prevalent in the mixture, a 26.5 % increase in the Faraday efficiency (%FE) for H2 O2 production was achieved, compared to bicarbonate (HCO3 - ) dominant solutions. Utilising boron-doped diamond (BDD) in highly concentrated K2 CO3 solutions, current densities of up to 511 mA cm-2 (in 4 m) and %FEs of 91.5 % (in 5 m) could be attained. The results presented in this work highlight the influence of CO3 2- on electrochemical H2 O2 generation via the 2e- WOR and provide novel pathways to produce desirable commodities at the anode during electrochemical water splitting.

Avoiding Pitfalls in Comparison of Activity and Selectivity of Solid Catalysts for Electrochemical HMF Oxidation.

Electrocatalytic oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) offers a renewable approach to produce the value-added platform chemical 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid (FDCA). The key for the economic viability of this approach is to develop active and selective electrocatalysts. Nevertheless, a reliable catalyst evaluation protocol is still missing, leading to elusive conclusions on criteria for a high-performing catalyst. Herein, we demonstrate that besides the catalyst identity, secondary parameters such as materials of conductive substrates for the working electrode, concentration of the supporting electrolyte, and electrolyzer configurations have profound impact on the catalyst performance and thus need to be optimized before assessing the true activity of a catalyst. Moreover, we highlight the importance of those secondary parameters in suppressing side reactions, which has long been overlooked. The protocol is validated by evaluating the performance of free-standing Cu-foam, and CuCoO modified with NaPO2 H2 and Ni, which were immobilized on boron-doped diamond (BDD) electrodes. Recommended practices and figure of merits in carefully evaluating the catalyst performance are proposed.

Pilot Study on the Use of a Laser-Structured Double Diamond Electrode (DDE) for Biofilm Removal from Dental Implant Surfaces.

No proper treatment option for peri-implantitis exists yet. Based on previous studies showing the in vitro effectiveness of electrochemical disinfection using boron-doped diamond electrodes, novel double diamond electrodes (DDE) were tested here. Using a ceramic carrier and a laser structuring process, a clinically applicable electrode array was manufactured. Roughened metal discs (n = 24) made from Ti-Zr alloy were exposed to the oral cavities of six volunteers for 24 h in order to generate biofilm. Then, biofilm removal was carried out either using plastic curettes and chlorhexidine digluconate or electrochemical disinfection. In addition, dental implants were contaminated with ex vivo multispecies biofilm and disinfected using DDE treatment. Bacterial growth and the formation of biofilm polymer were determined as outcome measures. Chemo-mechanical treatment could not eliminate bacteria from roughened surfaces, while in most cases, a massive reduction of bacteria and biofilm polymer was observed following DDE treatment. Electrochemical disinfection was charge- and time-dependent and could also not reach complete disinfection in all instances. Implant threads had no negative effect on DDE treatment. Bacteria exhibit varying resistance to electrochemical disinfection with Bacillus subtilis, Neisseria sp., Rothiamucilaginosa, Staphylococcus haemolyticus, and Streptococcus mitis surviving 5 min of DDE application at 6 V. Electrochemical disinfection is promising but requires further optimization with respect to charge quantity and application time in order to achieve disinfection without harming host tissue.

Electrochemical Disinfection of Dental Implants Experimentally Contaminated with Microorganisms as a Model for Periimplantitis.

Despite several methods having been described for disinfecting implants affected by periimplantitis, none of these are universally effective and may even alter surfaces and mechanical properties of implants. Boron-doped diamond (BDD) electrodes were fabricated from niobium wires and assembled as a single instrument for implant cleaning. Chemo-mechanical debridement and air abrasion were used as control methods. Different mono-species biofilms, formed by bacteria and yeasts, were allowed to develop in rich medium at 37 °C for three days. In addition, natural multi-species biofilms were treated. Implants were placed in silicone, polyurethane foam and bovine ribs for simulating different clinical conditions. Following treatment, the implants were rolled on blood agar plates, which were subsequently incubated at 37 °C and microbial growth was analyzed. Complete electrochemical disinfection of implant surfaces was achieved with a maximum treatment time of 20 min for Candida albicans, Candida dubliniensis, Enterococcus faecalis, Roseomonas mucosa, Staphylococcus epidermidis and Streptococcus sanguinis, while in case of spore-forming Bacillus pumilus and Bacillus subtilis, a number of colonies appeared after BDD electrode treatment indicating an incomplete disinfection. Independent of the species tested, complete disinfection was never achieved when conventional techniques were used. During treatment with BDD electrodes, only minor changes in temperature and pH value were observed. The instrument used here requires optimization so that higher charge quantities can be applied in shorter treatment times.

Influence of In-Situ Electrochemical Oxidation on Implant Surface and Colonizing Microorganisms Evaluated by Scanning Electron Microscopy.

Peri-implantitis is a worldwide increasing health problem, caused by infection of tissue and bone around an implant by biofilm-forming microorganisms. Effects of peri-implantitis treatment using mechanical debridement, air particle abrasion and electrochemical disinfection on implant surface integrity were compared. Dental implants covered with bacterial biofilm were cleaned using mechanical debridement and air particle abrasion. In addition, implants were disinfected using a novel electrochemical technique based on an array of boron-doped diamond (BDD) coated electrodes. Following treatment and preparation, the implants were inspected by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX). Mechanical debridement led to changes in surface topography destroying the manufacturer's medium-rough surface by scratch formation. Air particle abrasion led to accumulation of the abrasive used on the implant surface. With both treatment options, appearance of bacteria and yeasts was not affected. In contrast, electrochemical disinfection did not cause alterations of the implant surface but resulted in distorted microbial cells. Electrochemical disinfection of implant surfaces using BDD electrodes may constitute a promising treatment option for cleaning dental implant surfaces without negatively affecting materials and surface properties.

Electrochemical Disinfection of Experimentally Infected Teeth by Boron-Doped Diamond Electrode Treatment.

Disinfection and prevention of re-infection are the decisive treatment steps in endodontic therapy. In this study, boron-doped diamond (BDD) electrodes have been fabricated and used for disinfecting the root canals of extracted human teeth, which had been covered with bacterial biofilms formed by Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus epidermidis. The growth of B. subtilis could be successfully impaired, achieving a complete disinfection after 8.5 min treatment time with the success of disinfection depending on the insertion depth of the electrode in the root canal. S. epidermidis could completely be removed after 3.5 min treatment time. A clinically applicable electrode array led to complete disinfection after treatment times of 10 min for S. epidermidis and 25 min for B. subtilis. BDD electrode application allowed for the improved disinfection of root canals and dentin tubules based on a continuous production of reactive oxygen species and their enhanced penetration of dentin tubules most likely due the formation of a continuous stream of small gas bubbles. The treatment times that are required here will be shortened in clinical application, as mechanical shaping of the canal system would precede the disinfection process.

Elimination of bacterial contaminations by treatment of water with boron-doped diamond electrodes.

Boron-doped diamond electrodes can be used to generate reactive oxygen species directly at the electrode's surface. This property was used in this study for in-situ electrochemical oxidation to eliminate different bacteria, i.e. Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas fluorescens and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, as well as Bacillus subtilis spores from water samples. Application of low voltages in the rage from 4 to 10 V and short incubation times in the range of minutes allowed a complete disinfection of water contaminated with enterobacteria and freshwater microbes including nosocomial pathogens as well as a significant reduction of spores. A pilot reactor was constructed, which allowed to decrease microbial contamination of sewage plant effluent drastically. Boron-doped diamond electrodes allow efficient reduction of bacterial contaminations in water samples.

The bone-metal interface of defect and press-fit ingrowth of microwave plasma-chemical vapor deposition implants in the rabbit model.

PURPOSE: The histological differences between the defect and contact areas of the implant surface to bone were tested in 35 New Zealand White rabbits in a standardized model. Microwave plasma chemical vapor-coated implant probes were tested in control and uncoated materials. MATERIAL AND METHODS: In each femur of 35 rabbits, cylindrical implant rods with a planed side were inserted. Three groups, divided in coated and uncoated material at half, were observed 42, 84 and 168 days. The probes were examined histologically for bone-implant contact in the curved and plane (defect area) sides. RESULTS: Generally the bone-implant contact seems to be nearly constant in time in the curved area of coated and uncoated probes. Here the implant was inserted in the press-fit mode. Diamond-coated probes showed similar bone-implant contact (51.9% (42 days), 62.5% (84 days), 56.1% (168 days)) compared to uncoated material (56.2%, 65.4%, 62.9%). The defect area (plane side) had no bone-implant contact at the time of insertion and showed increasing values on longer observation times with only significant differences in the 42-day group between coated (17.85%, 35.2%, 47.7%) and uncoated materials (35.5%, 40.55%, 51.81%). CONCLUSION: The evaluation of the curved side of the implant probe showed no great variation of bone-implant contact within the described observation times. This model simulates the usual implant insertion situation. The diamond-coated material becomes osseointegrated at a later time point. The bone-implant contact was only statistically relevant in one group in comparison to uncoated material.

Examination of the bone-metal interface of titanium implants coated by the microwave plasma chemical vapor deposition method.

PURPOSE: Diamond layers can be plated with microwave plasma chemical vapor deposition (MWP-CVD) treatment on metal bases such as titanium-aluminum-vanadium alloy (Ti-6Al-4V). The bonding strength of the diamond layer to the metal base is very high, so that no fissures and partial loss of coating take place-well known phenomena that may occur with other coatings in tribologic material testing. In an experimental study using 40 New Zealand White rabbits, a new method for coating implant material was tested for stability of the bone-metal interface. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The results of histomorphometric and biomechanical evaluation of coated and uncoated probes implanted in the distal femur of 40 rabbits were compared. The animals were divided into 3 groups, with observation times of 42, 84, and 168 days. RESULTS: The bone-implant contact was 5% to 18% less in coated than in uncoated probes. Only the early group, with 42 days healing time showed significant differences. Values for the pull-off force of uncoated material were about 3 to 4 times higher than coated material (diamond layer = 2.7 microm). The force increased 2 to 3 times when 200-nm coatings were tested. Electron microscopy detected undercuts of the rough surface that were obturated by diamond when the coating was too thick. DISCUSSION: Diamond-coated material seems to have no corrosion problems in contrast to all other known implant material. CONCLUSION: An inert diamond layer on a metal base can become osseointegrated. Biomechanical stability increased by thinning the diamond coating.