The relationship between mistrust and aggression from childhood to adulthood.

The study examined the relationship between mistrust and aggression from childhood to adulthood. The participants resided in Portugal and were tested during middle childhood (Mage = 7.5, SD = 0.81 years, n = 445, 240 male), preadolescence (Mage = 11.92, SD = 0.96 years, n = 431, 200 male), mid-adolescence (Mage = 14.70, SD = 0.91 years, n = 326, 201 male), late adolescence (Mage = 18.14, SD = 1.19 years, n = 410, 216 male), and adulthood (Mage = 26.56, SD = 1.13, years, n = 417, 197 male). Mothers reported the participants' mistrust during childhood and preadolescence on items from the Child Behavior Checklist. Aggression was assessed by standardized self-report measures at each age period. It was found that mistrust was associated with aggression during preadolescence and predicted changes in aggression to mid-adolescence and adulthood. The findings supported the conclusion that mistrust during preadolescence predisposes individuals to show aggression later in the life course.

Trust Beliefs in Significant Others, Interpersonal Stress, and Internalizing Psychopathology of Adolescents with Psychiatric Disorders.

This study examined relations between trust beliefs in significant others (TBSO), interpersonal stress, and internalizing psychopathology for adolescents with psychiatric disorders. Two hundred and thirty-four adolescents from an acute inpatient unit (154 females, Mage = 14.72 years, SD = 1.39 years) completed standardized scales/interviews that assessed TBSO (mother, father, teacher, peers and TBSO as a total score), interpersonal stress, and internalizing psychopathology. It was found that adolescents' TBSO and trust beliefs in each significant other were negatively associated with interpersonal stress and internalizing psychopathology. The findings confirmed that the relation between the adolescents' interpersonal stress and internalizing psychopathology was moderated by TBSO, trust beliefs in mother, and trust beliefs in peers. The findings supported the conclusion that holding elevated TBSO (particularly trust beliefs in mother and peers) by adolescents with psychiatric disorders promotes their psychosocial adjustment including their resilience to the effects of interpersonal stress on internalizing psychopathology.

A test of the social withdrawal syndrome hypothesis of bulimia nervosa.

BACKGROUND: The study examined the social withdrawal syndrome (SWS) hypothesis of bulimia nervosa (BN). According to the hypothesis, eating disorders such as BN are associated with a coherent set of social withdrawal cognitions, affect, and behavior. PARTICIPANTS AND PROCEDURE: Eight-eight young female adults completed a standardized measure of bulimic symptoms and measures of social withdrawal (affective withdrawal, trust beliefs in close others, and disclosure). Participants were engaged in a laboratory-based peer interaction which yielded the SWS measure of perceived lack of social connectiveness. RESULTS: Bulimic symptoms were associated with each measure of social withdrawal. Structural equation modeling analysis confirmed that those measures contributed to a coherent latent factor which was associated with bulimic symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: The findings supported the social withdrawal syndrome hypothesis of BN and have implications for the detection and treatment of eating disorders.

The relation between young adults' trust beliefs in others and interpersonal hostility.

The research examined whether, and if so how, young adults' trust beliefs in others were associated with interpersonal hostility. The participants in Study 1 were 139 young adults from the UK (76 women; Mage = 20.8). In Study 2, 88 young adult women from the UK (Mage = 21.5) served as participants. The participants completed a standardized measure of trust beliefs in others (total with reliability, honesty, and emotional subscales). In Study 1, participants imagined they were victims of peer provocation. They were required to judge the intention for the provocation and their retaliation to it. In Study 2, the participants were engaged in a lab-based acquaintanceship interaction that involved the exchange of disclosures. They completed an adjective checklist that assessed anger and evaluated the quality of the conversation. Trust beliefs were linearly and negatively associated with the attribution of hostile intentions, retaliation, anger toward others, and critical evaluation of a developing peer relationship. As expected though, quadratic relations were found. Young adults with very low and those with very high trust beliefs (primarily emotionally based) showed greater attribution of hostile intentions, retaliation, anger toward others, and critical evaluation of a developing peer relationship than did young adults with the middle range of trust beliefs. The linear relations supported the hypothesis that trust promotes psychosocial adjustment. The quadratic relations supported the deviation from the normative trust (centralist) approach primarily for emotional trust beliefs in others.

A longitudinal investigation of trust beliefs in physicians by children with asthma and their mothers: Relations with children's adherence to medical regimes and quality of life.

OBJECTIVE: The study examined the relations between trust beliefs in physicians, adherence to prescribed medical regimes, and quality of life for children with asthma and their mothers. METHODS: One hundred forty-three children with asthma (116 males, M = 12 years-7 months) and their mothers were tested twice (Time 1/T1 and Time 2/T2) across a 1-year period. Standardized measures were administered that assessed the children's and mothers' trust beliefs in physicians, the children's quality of life, and children's adherence to prescribed medical regimes (adherence). RESULTS: Correlations were found between children's trust beliefs in physicians, mothers' trust beliefs in physicians, adherence, and quality of life. Structural equation modelling analyses confirmed that (a) children's trust beliefs in physicians predicted their adherence and quality of life and (b) there were reciprocal predictive relations between the children's and mothers' trust beliefs in physicians. CONCLUSIONS: The findings yield support for the conclusions that (a) trust beliefs in physicians by children with asthma promote their adherence and quality of life and (b) socialization of trust beliefs in physicians is a mutual mother-child process.

Obesity and the Social Withdrawal Syndrome.

The relation between obesity and Social Withdrawal Syndrome (SWS) was examined using the data gathered by Rotenberg, Bharathi, Davies, and Finch (2013). One hundred and 35 undergraduates (80 females; Mage=21years-10months) completed standardized scales that assessed the SWS (low emotional trust beliefs in close others, low disclosure to close others, and high loneliness). BMI was calculated from self-reported weight and height. As hypothesized, quadratic relations were found in which participants with BMI>30 (i.e., obese) demonstrated the SWS pattern of low emotional trust beliefs in close others, low disclosure to close others, and high loneliness. As further evidence, lower emotional trust in close others, lower disclosure to close others, and greater loneliness were found for obese participants (>30 BMI, n=27) than both normal weight (<25 BMI, n=67) and overweight participants (25 to 30 BMI, n=41). The findings confirmed the hypothesis that obesity was associated with the SWS. The findings suggested that the lack of trust in others by obese individuals contributes to their unwillingness to seek out help for health and psychosocial problems.

The relation between anorexic symptoms in women and their reports of trustworthiness in interactions with close persons.

The study examined the relation between women's anorexic symptoms and their reports of trustworthiness in interactions with close persons. Ninety-eight females (mean age=24years-10months) completed the anorexic symptom subscale of the SEDS and reported (ascribed) the extent to which they showed reliability, emotional, and honesty trustworthiness behaviors in interactions with their mother, father, and close friend. Negative linear relations were found between anorexic symptoms and ascribed: (a) trustworthiness with close friends; (b) reliability trustworthiness; and (c) at a trend level, honesty trustworthiness. These were qualified by curvilinear relations and by elevated anorexic vs normative group comparisons. It was found that women with elevated anorexic symptoms ascribed lower trustworthiness than did women with the normal range of anorexic symptoms. The findings were interpreted as supporting the conclusion that women with elevated levels of anorexic symptoms are inclined to believe that they are deceptive in their interactions with close persons, primarily friends.

The relation between Bulimic symptoms and the social withdrawal syndrome during early adolescence.

OBJECTIVE: The short-term longitudinal study tested the hypothesis that there was a prospective relation between the social withdrawal syndrome and Bulimic symptoms during early adolescence. METHOD: Ninety-six adolescents (47 males, mean age=13 years - 10 months) completed standardized scales assessing Bulimic symptoms, trust beliefs in others and loneliness at Time 1/T1 and again 5 months later at Time 2/T2. RESULTS: Analyses showed that: (1) Bulimic symptoms were negatively correlated with trust beliefs, (2) Bulimic symptoms were positively correlated with loneliness, and (3) trust beliefs were negatively correlated with loneliness. The SEM and mediation analyses showed that trust beliefs at T1 were negatively and concurrently associated with Bulimic symptoms at T1 and longitudinally (and negatively) predicted changes in Bulimic symptoms. It was found that loneliness at T1 statistically mediated those concurrent and longitudinal relations. CONCLUSION: The findings yielded support for the conclusion that the social withdrawal syndrome, as assessed by low trust beliefs and resulting experiences of loneliness, contributes to Bulimia nervosa during early adolescence.

Development of a scale to assess children's trust in general nurses.

PURPOSE: Develop a Children's Trust in General Nurses Scale (CTGNS). DESIGN AND METHODS: In a cross-sectional investigation, 128 U.K. children (68 females and 60 males; mean age = 10 years and 4 months) completed the CTGNS and reported their trust in, and fear of, nurses. A total of 46 parents reported those dispositions and the frequency of their children visiting medical centres. RESULTS: The CTGNS showed acceptable internal consistency and factor structure. It was correlated with reported children's trust in nurses and visiting medical centres. PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS: The CTGNS will permit the investigation of children's trust in nurses and interventions to promote it.

When trust fails: the relation between children's trust beliefs in peers and their peer interactions in a natural setting.

One hundred and forty-nine 8-11 year-old children (86 males; M = 9 years - 4 months and SD = 7 months) from the UK were administered the Trust Beliefs in Peers scale and were observed in the playground over one school year. Quadratic relations were found between trust beliefs in peers and peer interaction, which varied by gender. Compared to girls with the middle range of trust beliefs, girls with very low beliefs and those with very high beliefs (a) were less accepted/more rejected by the peer group (i.e., lower group interaction, and greater negatively received bids), (b) showed greater indirect aggression (engaged in and received), (c) showed greater non-engagement (i.e., being alone), and (d) showed greater concomitant distress. Compared to children with the middle range of trust beliefs, children with those extreme trust beliefs in peers demonstrated greater direct aggression (engaged in and received) and showed passive behavior (for boys only). The findings supported the conclusion that children, primarily girls, who trust peers too little and those who trust too much are at risk for psychosocial maladjustment.

The relation between early adolescents' trust beliefs in peers and reactions to peer provocation: attributions of intention and retaliation.

The authors examined the relation between early adolescents' trust beliefs in peers and both their attributions for, and retaliatory aggression to, peer provocation. One hundred and eight-five early adolescents (102 male) from the United Kingdom (M age = 12 years, 2 months, SD = 3 months) completed the Children's Generalized Trust Beliefs in peer subscale (K. J. Rotenberg, C. Fox, et al., 2005) and reported the intentions of, and their retaliatory aggression to, hypothetical peer provocation. A curvilinear relation was found between trust beliefs in peers and retaliatory aggression but not for attributions of intention. Early adolescents with low and those with very high trust beliefs in peers reported greater retaliatory aggression than did early adolescents with the middle range of trust beliefs. The findings supported the conclusion that early adolescents who are high trusting, as well as those are very low trusting, are at risk for psychosocial maladjustment. Support was not obtained for a hostility attribution bias interpretation of those patterns.

Bulimic symptoms and the social withdrawal syndrome.

One hundred and thirty-seven undergraduates (81 females; mean age = 21 years-10 months) completed the Bulimic SEDS subscale and standardized measures of trust beliefs in close others (mother, father, and friend), disclosure to them, and loneliness. Structural Equation Modelling yielded: (1) a negative path between Bulimic Symptoms and trust beliefs, (2) a positive path between trust beliefs and disclosure, (3) a negative path between trust beliefs and loneliness, and (4) a negative path between disclosure and loneliness. As expected, trust beliefs statistically mediated the relations between Bulimic Symptoms and both disclosure and loneliness and disclosure statistically mediated the relation between trust beliefs and loneliness. The findings supported the conclusion that individuals with bulimia nervosa are prone to the social withdrawal syndrome comprising a coherent and integrated pattern of low trust beliefs in close others, low disclosure to close others, and high loneliness.

"Do you trust him?" Children's trust beliefs and developmental trajectories of aggressive behavior in an ethnically diverse sample.

This study investigated the role of trust beliefs (i.e., trustworthiness, trustfulness) on aggression trajectories in a four-wave longitudinal study using an ethnically diverse sample of 8- to 11-year-old children (N = 1,028), as well as the risk profiles of low trust beliefs and low socioeconomic status on aggression trajectories. At Time 1 to Time 4, teachers provided ratings of overt aggressive behavior. At Time 1, children's trust beliefs were assessed by a sociometric peer nomination instrument and derived using social relations analysis. Latent growth curve analysis revealed five trajectories of aggressive behavior: high-stable, medium-stable, low-stable, increasing, and decreasing. As hypothesized, children in the high-stable trajectory were perceived as less trustworthy than children in the low-stable, medium-stable, and increasing trajectories. Children in the high-stable trajectory were less trustful than children in the low-stable trajectory and had a significantly higher risk profile (i.e., low trust beliefs and low SES) compared to children in the low-stable trajectory. Our findings indicate that the developmental course of aggression during middle childhood is predicted by children's trustworthiness and trustfulness. A risk profile of low trust and low socioeconomic status contributes to high-stable aggression trajectories.

An interactional test of the reformulated helplessness theory of depression in women receiving clinical treatment for eating disorders.

The study tested the Reformulated Helplessness model that individuals who show combined internal locus of control, high stability and high globality attributions for negative life events are prone to depression. Thirty-six women (M=29 years-8 months of age) receiving clinical treatment for eating disorders completed: the Attribution Style Questionnaire, the Beck Depression Inventory, and the Stirling Eating Disorder Scales. An HRA yielded a three-way interaction among the attributional dimensions on depressive symptoms. Plotting of the slopes showed that the attribution of negative life events to the combination of internal locus of control, high stability, and a high globality, was associated with the optimal level of depressive symptoms. The findings supported the Reformulated Helplessness as a model of depression.

Examining the components of children's peer liking as antecedents of school adjustment.

Children's social interactions with their peers influence their psychosocial adjustment; consequently, the relationship between class-wide peer liking, same-gender peer liking, and school adjustment was explored in two age groups. Peer liking was analysed using the social relations model (SRM). In Study 1, 205 children (103 female and 102 male, M(age) = 7.15, SD= 7 months) completed measures of peer liking and school adjustment, and teachers completed the Short-Form Teacher Rating Scale of School Adjustment (Short-Form TRSSA). In Study 2, 197 children (98 female and 90 male, M(age) = 9.87, SD= 5.9 months) completed measures of peer liking and school adjustment. Both studies yielded evidence of reciprocal liking and individual differences in the ratings of liking awarded to, and elicited from, both peer groups. Multigroup path analysis, with groups created according to gender, revealed that elements of liking predicted different aspects of school adjustment with some variation according to age and gender. Together, these findings suggest that the SRM can be used to examine peer liking and underscore the importance of children's peers for school adjustment.

The relation between the lack of control attributional style for indulgent food consumption and bulimic symptoms.

OBJECTIVE: The study examined the potential link between the lack of control attributional style for indulgent food consumption and bulimic symptoms. METHOD: One hundred and 77 undergraduates (145 female; mean age=19 years-2 months) were administered the Eating Attributional Style Questionnaire and the Sterling Eating Disorder Scales across a five-month period. RESULTS: SEM analyses confirmed that: (1) uncontrollability attributions for indulgent food consumption were concurrently associated with bulimic symptoms, and (2) external locus of control and uncontrollability attributions for indulgent food consumption predicted changes in bulimic symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: The findings yielded support for the conclusion that the lack of control attributional style for indulgent food consumption is a probable cause of bulimic symptoms.

The relation between trust beliefs and loneliness during early childhood, middle childhood, and adulthood.

Four studies examined the relation between trust and loneliness. Studies 1, 2, and 3 showed that trust beliefs negatively predicted changes in loneliness during early childhood (5-7 years), middle childhood (9-11 years), and young adulthood (18-21 years). Structural equation modeling yielded support for the hypothesis that the relation between trust beliefs and loneliness was mediated, in part, by social disengagement, which varied by age and gender. Study 4 showed that when young adults were primed for distrust rather than for trust cognitions, they showed greater withdrawal (loneliness) affect, lower willingness to disclose, and less perceived success in achieving rapport. The findings yielded support for the hypotheses that (a) low trust beliefs promote loneliness from childhood to adulthood and (b) social disengagement and cognitive schema mechanisms account for the relation.

Childhood loneliness as a predictor of adolescent depressive symptoms: an 8-year longitudinal study.

Childhood loneliness is characterised by children's perceived dissatisfaction with aspects of their social relationships. This 8-year prospective study investigates whether loneliness in childhood predicts depressive symptoms in adolescence, controlling for early childhood indicators of emotional problems and a sociometric measure of peer social preference. 296 children were tested in the infant years of primary school (T1 5 years of age), in the upper primary school (T2 9 years of age) and in secondary school (T3 13 years of age). At T1, children completed the loneliness assessment and sociometric interview. Their teachers completed externalisation and internalisation rating scales for each child. At T2, children completed a loneliness assessment, a measure of depressive symptoms, and the sociometric interview. At T3, children completed the depressive symptom assessment. An SEM analysis showed that depressive symptoms in early adolescence (age 13) were predicted by reports of depressive symptoms at age 8, which were themselves predicted by internalisation in the infant school (5 years). The interactive effect of loneliness at 5 and 9, indicative of prolonged loneliness in childhood, also predicted depressive symptoms at age 13. Parent and peer-related loneliness at age 5 and 9, peer acceptance variables, and duration of parent loneliness did not predict depression. Our results suggest that enduring peer-related loneliness during childhood constitutes an interpersonal stressor that predisposes children to adolescent depressive symptoms. Possible mediators are discussed.

An investigation of the impact of young children's self-knowledge of trustworthiness on school adjustment: a test of the realistic self-knowledge and positive illusion models.

The study aimed to examine the relationship between self-knowledge of trustworthiness and young children's school adjustment. One hundred and seventy-three (84 male and 89 female) children from school years 1 and 2 in the United Kingdom (mean age 6 years 2 months) were tested twice over 1-year. Children's trustworthiness was assessed using: (a) self-report at Time 1 and Time 2; (b) peers reports at Time 1 and Time 2; and (c) teacher-reports at Time 2. School adjustment was assessed by child-rated school-liking and the Short-Form Teacher Rating Scale of School Adjustment (Short-Form TRSSA). Longitudinal quadratic relationships were found between school adjustment and children's self-knowledge, using peer-reported trustworthiness as a reference: more accurate self-knowledge of trustworthiness predicted increases in school adjustment. Comparable concurrent quadratic relationships were found between teacher-rated school adjustment and children's self-knowledge, using teacher-reported trustworthiness as a reference, at Time 2. The findings support the conclusion that young children's psychosocial adjustment is best accounted for by the realistic self-knowledge model (Colvin & Block, 1994).

The relations among young children's peer-reported trustworthiness, inhibitory control, and preschool adjustment.

Sixty-five (38 male and 27 female) preschool children (mean age = 5 years 1 month) completed measures of peers' trustworthiness (promise keeping and secret keeping). Teachers rated the preschool children's inhibitory control, trustworthiness, and preschool adjustment. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) yielded support for the hypothesized model. The expected positive paths were found from (1) gender to preschool adjustment and inhibitory control, (2) age to peer-reported trustworthiness, (3) peer-reported trustworthiness to preschool adjustment, (4) inhibitory control to peer-reported trustworthiness, and (5) inhibitory control to preschool adjustment. The findings confirmed the hypothesized development of trustworthiness with age and girls' advantage over boys in inhibitory control and preschool adjustment. The findings supported the hypotheses that trustworthiness is associated with preschool adjustment and mediates, in part, the relation between inhibitory control and preschool adjustment.