Orexinergic innervation of urocortin1 and cocaine and amphetamine regulated transcript neurons in the midbrain centrally projecting Edinger-Westphal nucleus.

Orexin is a neuropeptide that has been implicated in several processes, such as induction of appetite, arousal and alertness and sleep/wake regulation. Multiple lines of evidence also suggest that orexin is involved in the stress response. When orexin is administered intracerebroventricular it activates the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA)-axis, which is the main regulator of the stress response. The HPA-axis is not the only player in the stress response evidence suggests that urocortin 1 (Ucn1), a member of the corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) neuropeptide family, also plays an important role in the stress response adaptation. Ucn1 is primarily synthetized in the centrally projecting Edinger-Westphal nucleus (EWcp), which also receives dense innervation by orexin terminals. In this study we tested the hypothesis that orexin would directly shape the response of EWcp-Ucn1 neurons to acute cold stress. To test this hypothesis, we first assessed whether orexinergic axon terminals would innervate EWcp-Ucn1/CART neurons, and next we exposed orexin deficient (orexin-KO) male mice and their male wild-type (WT) littermates to acute cold stress for 2h. We also assessed stress-associated changes in plasma corticosterone (CORT), as well as the activation of Ucn1/CART neurons in the EWcp nucleus. We found that orexin immunoreactive axon terminals were juxtaposed to EWcp-Ucn1/CART neurons, which also expressed orexin receptor 1 mRNA. Furthermore, acute stress strongly activated the EWcp-Ucn1/CART neurons and increased plasma CORT in both WT littermates and orexin-KO mice, however no genotype effect was found on these indices. Taken together our data show that orexin in general is not involved in the animal's acute stress response (plasma CORT) and it does not play a direct role in shaping the response of EWcp-Ucn1 neurons to acute stress either.

Cannabinoid modulation of midbrain urocortin 1 neurones during acute and chronic stress.

Neurones in the centrally projecting Edinger-Westphal nucleus (EWcp) are the main site of urocortin 1 (Ucn1) synthesis in the mammalian brain, and are assumed to play a role in the stress response of the animal. Because endocannabinoid signalling has also been strongly implicated in stress, we hypothesised that endocannabinoids may modulate the functioning of the urocortinergic EWcp. First, using in situ hybridisation, we demonstrated cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1R) mRNA expression in mouse EWcp-neurones that were Ucn1-negative. Dual- and triple-label immunocytochemistry revealed the presence of CB1R in several GABA-immunopositive fibres juxtaposed to EWcp-Ucn1 neurones. To test functional aspects of such an anatomical constellation, we compared acute (1 h of restraint) and chronic (14 days of chronic mild stress) stress-induced changes in wild-type (WT) and CB1R knockout (CB1R-KO) mice. Acute and especially chronic stress resulted in an increase in Ucn1 content of the EWcp, which was attenuated in CB1R-KO mice. CB1R-KO mice had higher basal and chronic stress-induced adrenocorticotrophin and corticosterone levels and were more anxious on the elevated plus-maze versus WT. Collectively, our results show for the first time EWcp-Ucn1 neurones are putatively innervated by endocannabinoid sensitive, inhibitory, GABAergic afferents. In addition, we provide novel evidence that the absence of the CB1 receptor alters the Ucn1 mRNA and peptide levels in EWcp neurones, concomitant with an augmented stress response and increased anxiety-like behaviour.

The amygdala, a relay station for switching on and off pain.

Neuropathic pain is strongly associated with mood disorders like anxiety and depression. Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) plays a prominent role in these disorders as it is up-regulated in limbic structures such as the amygdala, upon experimentally induced neuropathy. This review discusses recent literature on the role of CRF in pain processing and highlights the amygdala as a potential hot spot in supraspinal descending pain control. Many studies have demonstrated analgesic effects of CRF following local and systemic administration, but more recently also hyperalgesic effects were shown upon endogenous amygdalar CRF increase or by blocking the CRF type 1 receptor (CRFR1). On the basis of the reviewed literature, we postulate a central mechanism for pain control in which the amygdala plays a critical role by switching on and off chronic pain. In this mechanism, upon pain stimuli, CRFR1 in the amygdala is activated by CRF to induce hyperalgesia. When the activated CRFR1 is internalized (pain initiation), it triggers the translocation of the cytoplasmic CRF type 2 receptor (CRFR2) to the plasma membrane. Here, CRFR2 can be recruited by either high (pharmacological) concentrations of CRF or by endogenous CRFR2 ligands, the urocortins, leading to analgesia (pain termination). This on-off switching of pain is completed by redistribution of the CRF receptors to their initial activity state. We furthermore propose that in neuropathic pain, this mechanism is dysregulated and causes a state of permanent hyperalgesia, and present an integrative (patho)physiological model for the way disturbed CRF receptor signalling in the amygdala could initiate neuropathic pain.

Differential responses of corticotropin-releasing factor and urocortin 1 to acute pain stress in the rat brain.

It has been hypothesized that corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) and its related neuropeptide urocortin 1 (Ucn1) play different roles in the initiation and adaptive phases of the stress response, which implies different temporal dynamics of these neuropeptides in response to stressors. We have tested the hypothesis that acute pain stress (APS) differentially changes the dynamics of CRF expression in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVN), oval subdivision of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BSTov) and central amygdala (CeA), and the dynamics of Ucn1 expression in the midbrain non-preganglionic Edinger-Westphal nucleus (npEW). Thirty minutes after APS, induced by a formalin injection into the left hind paw, PVN, BSTov, CeA and npEW all showed a peak in cFos mRNA expression that was followed by a robust increase in cFos protein-immunoreactivity, indicating a rapid increase in (immediate early) gene expression in all four brain nuclei. CRF-dynamics, however, were affected by APS in a brain nucleus-specific way: in the PVN, CRF-immunoreactivity was minimal at 60 min after APS and concomitant with a marked increase in plasma corticosterone, whereas in the BSTov not CRF peptide but CRF mRNA peaked at 60 min, and in the CeA a surge of CRF peptide occurred as late as 240 min. The npEW differed from the other centers, as Ucn1 mRNA and Ucn1 peptide peaked at 120 min. These results support our hypothesis that each of the four brain centers responds to APS with CRF/Ucn1 dynamics that are specific as to nature and timing. In particular, we propose that CRF in the PVN plays a major role in the initiation phase, whereas Ucn1 in the npEW may act in the later, termination phase of the adaptation response to APS.

Extracellular-signal regulated kinase regulates production of pro-opiomelanocortin in pituitary melanotroph cells.

The extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathway is important in the regulation of neuronal plasticity, although a role for the kinase in regulating plasticity of neuroendocrine systems has not been examined. The melanotroph cells in the pars intermedia of pituitary gland of the amphibian Xenopus laevis are highly plastic, undergoing very strong growth to support the high biosynthetic and secretory activity involving α-melanophore-stimulating hormone (α-MSH), a peptide that causes pigment dispersion in dermal melanophores during the adaptation of the animal to a dark background. In the present study, we tested our hypothesis that ERK-signalling is involved in the regulation of melanotroph cell function during black-background adaptation, namely in the production of pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC), the precursor of α-MSH. Using western blot analyses, we found elevated levels of the activated (phosphorylated) form of ERK in melanotrophs of black- versus white-adapted animals. Treatment of melanotrophs in vitro with the mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase inhibitor U0126 markedly reduced ERK phosphorylation and lowered the transcription as well as the translation of POMC. This same treatment also reduced the expression of BDNF transcript IV and of the immediate early genes c-Fos and Nur77. We conclude that ERK-mediated signalling is important for the maintenance of the melanotroph cells in an active state.

Stress-related changes in the activity of cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript and nesfatin neurons in the midbrain non-preganglionic Edinger-Westphal nucleus in the rat.

Cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) and nesfatin-1/nucleobindin 2 (NUCB2) are assumed to play a role in feeding and adaptation to stress. Both peptides are highly expressed in the midbrain non-preganglionic Edinger-Westphal nucleus (npEW), a center implicated in the regulation of stress adaptation and in the pathogenesis of stress-induced brain disorders, in a sex-specific manner. The present study was undertaken to test whether CART and nesfatin are involved in these actions of the npEW in the rat. Acute restraint and chronic variable mild stress were used. Following stress, physiological parameters (serum corticosterone levels, body, adrenal and thymus weights) were determined, CART and nesfatin-like immunoreactivity (LI) as well as mRNA expression were analyzed in the npEW nucleus. Our results depict the following changes: (1) Acute stress resulted in an increase in serum corticosterone levels that was higher in females; (2) In males, data on corticosterone and body weight gain and in females, data on body weight gain revealed an effect of chronic stress; (3) Both acute and chronic stress activated npEW neurons expressing CART and nesfatin-LI, as shown by increased cFos immunoreactivity; (4) Chronic, but not acute stress increased the amount of CART and nesfatin-LI in both males and females; (5) Neither acute nor chronic stress had an effect on CART and NUCB2 mRNA contents of npEW neurons in either sex. Taken together, our data suggest that CART and nesfatin are involved in the response of npEW neurons to chronic stress.

Sex-specific effects of fasting on urocortin 1, cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript peptide and nesfatin-1 expression in the rat Edinger-Westphal nucleus.

Leptin is critical for normal food intake and energy metabolism. While leptin receptor (ObR) function has been well studied in hypothalamic feeding circuitries, the functional relevance of ObR in extrahypothalamic areas is largely unknown. Central regulatory pathways involved in food intake utilize various neuropeptides, such as urocortin 1 (Ucn1), cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript peptide (CART) and nesfatin-1. Ucn1 is most abundantly expressed in the non-preganglionic Edinger-Westphal nucleus (npEW). In addition to Ucn1, other satiety signals, such as CART and nesfatin-1, are highly expressed in neurons of the npEW. Using immunocytochemistry and reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), we here show the presence of short and long forms of ObR in the rat npEW. Then, we tested our hypothesis that a change in plasma leptin will modulate the activity of npEW neurons containing Ucn1, CART and nesfatin-1. First, by double-labeling immunocytochemistry, we observed that almost all npEW neurons colocalizing Ucn1, CART and nesfatin-1 also contain ObR. Fasting rats for two days caused a marked body weight loss and reduced leptin plasma level in both genders. Ucn1 mRNA and CART mRNA were upregulated after fasting in males (3.3 and 2.4 times, respectively; P<0.05) but not in females. However, their peptide levels were not significantly changed. The peptide level and mRNA of nesfatin-1 were unaffected by fasting. We conclude that npEW-neurons containing Ucn1, CART and nesfatin-1 co-express ObR, and may be involved in leptin-mediated feeding control in male rats only.

Using transgenic animal models in neuroendocrine research: lessons from Xenopus laevis.

Transgenic animals are commonly employed to explore the function of individual proteins. Transgenic animal models include the mouse, the zebrafish, and the South African clawed toad Xenopus laevis. In contrast to mice and zebrafish, with Xenopus transgenesis DNA integration is mostly achieved in the one-cell stage. Moreover, Xenopus (as well as zebrafish) eggs are relatively large, the embryos are transparent, a large offspring is generated, and maintenance of the offspring is easy. In our transgenic studies in Xenopus, we focus on the well-characterized neuroendocrine melanotrope cells of the pituitary pars intermedia that are regulated during the process of adaptation of Xenopus to a changing environment. When the animal is placed on a black background, the melanotrope cells produce and process large amounts of the prohormone proopiomelanocortin (POMC). We apply stable melanotrope-specific transgenesis that is achieved by mixing a Xenopus POMC-promoter/transgene construct with sperm nuclei and injecting this mixture into unfertilized eggs. Since in the melanotrope cells the POMC promoter is much more active in black-adapted animals, the level of transgene expression can be manipulated by placing the animal on either a black or a white background. In this paper we review the possibilities of the Xenopus melanotrope-specific transgenic approach. Following a brief overview of the functioning of Xenopus melanotrope cells, stable melanotrope-specific transgenesis is discussed and our transgenic studies on brain-derived neurotrophic factor and secretory pathway components are described as examples of the transgenic approach in a physiological context and close to the in vivo situation.

Diurnal expression of period 2 and urocortin 1 in neurones of the non-preganglionic Edinger-Westphal nucleus in the rat.

Period 2 (Per2) is an important clock gene involved in the regulation of the major circadian clock in the mammalian central nervous system, the suprachiasmatic nucleus. In addition, Per2 is expressed in many other stress-sensitive brain structures. We have previously showed that the non-preganglionic Edinger-Westphal nucleus (npEW) is the main site of the corticotropin-releasing factor peptide family member urocortin 1 (Ucn1) and that this peptide undergoes conspicuous expression changes in response to various stressors. Here, we hypothesized that in the rat npEW both Per2 and Ucn1 would be produced in a diurnal, rhythmical fashion. This hypothesis was tested by following this expected rhythm on two days in rats killed at four time points each day (Zeitgeber times 0, 6, 12, and 18). We showed the co-existence of Per2 and Ucn1 in the npEW with double-label immunofluorescence and demonstrated with quantitative RT-PCR and semi-quantitative immunocytochemistry diurnal rhythms in Per2 mRNA expression and Per2 protein content, each on a single different day, with a minimum at lights-off and a maximum at lights-on. We furthermore revealed a diurnal rhythm in the number of Ucn1-immunopositive neurones and in their Ucn1 peptide content, with a minimum at night and at the beginning of the light period and a peak at lights-off, while the Ucn1 mRNA content paralleled the Per2 mRNA rhythm. The rhythms were accompanied by a diurnal rhythm in plasma corticosterone concentration. Our results are in line with the hypothesis that both Per2 and Ucn1 in the rat npEW are produced in a diurnal fashion, a phenomenon that may be relevant for the regulation of the diurnal rhythm in the stress response.

Housekeeping genes revisited: different expressions depending on gender, brain area and stressor.

Housekeeping gene (HKG) mRNAs are used to normalize expression data of genes of interest in quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction studies. Such normalization assumes constant HKG gene expression under all circumstances. Although sporadic evidence suggests that HKG expression may not always fulfill this requirement and, therefore, such normalization may lead readily to erroneous results, this fact is generally not sufficiently appreciated by investigators. Here, we have systematically analyzed the expression of three common HKGs, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, ribosomal subunit 18S and beta-actin, in two different stress paradigms, in various brain areas, in male and in female rats. HKG expressions differed considerably with respect to brain area, type of stressor and gender, in an HKG-specific manner. Therefore, we conclude that before final experimentation, pilot expression studies are necessary to select an HKG which expression is unaffected by the experimental factor(s), allowing reliable interpretation of expression data of genes of interest.

Chronic psychosocial stress affects corticotropin-releasing factor in the paraventricular nucleus and central extended amygdala as well as urocortin 1 in the non-preganglionic Edinger-Westphal nucleus of the tree shrew.

Stressful stimuli evoke neuronal and neuroendocrine responses helping an organism to adapt to changed environmental conditions. Chronic stressors may induce maladaptive responses leading to psychiatric diseases, such as anxiety and major depression. A suitable animal model to unravel mechanisms involved in the control of adaptation to chronic stress is the psychological subordination stress in the male tree shrew. Subordinate male tree shrews exhibit chronic hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) activation as reflected in continuously elevated cortisol secretion, and structural changes in the hippocampal formation. Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) is the major peptide released upon activation of the HPA axis in response to stress. Recent evidence suggests that besides CRF, urocortin 1 (Ucn1) also plays a role in stress adaptation. We have tested the significance of CRF and Ucn1 in adaptation to chronic psychosocial stress in male tree shrews exposed for 35 days to daily psychosocial conflict, by performing semi-quantitative immunocytochemistry for CRF in the parvocellular hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus (pPVN), extended amygdala, viz. central extended amygdala (CeA) and dorsolateral nucleus of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNSTdl) as well as that for Ucn1 in the non-preganglionic Edinger-Westphal nucleus (npEW). Compared to unstressed animals, psychosocial stress resulted in an immediate and sustained activation of the HPA axis and sympathetic tone as well as reduced testosterone concentration and decreased body and testis weights vs. non-stressed tree shrews. In the pPVN, the number of CRF-immunoreactive neurons and the specific signal density of CRF-immunoreactive fiber terminals in the CeA were strongly reduced (-300 and -40%, respectively; P<0.05), whereas no significant difference in CRF fiber density was found in BNSTdl. The npEW revealed 4 times less Ucn1-immunoreactive neurons (P<0.05). These clear effects on both Ucn1- and CRF-neuropeptide contents may reflect a crucial mechanism enabling the animal to adapt successfully to the stressors, and point to the significance of the pPVN, CeA and npEW in stress-induced brain diseases.

Localisation and physiological regulation of corticotrophin-releasing factor receptor 1 mRNA in the Xenopus laevis brain and pituitary gland.

In Xenopus laevis, corticotrophin-releasing factor (CRF) and urocortin 1 are present in the brain and they both are potent stimulators of alpha-melanophore stimulating hormone (MSH) secretion by melanotroph cells in the pituitary gland. Because both CRF and urocortin 1 bind with high affinity to CRF receptor type 1 (CRF1) in mammals and Xenopus laevis, one of the purposes of the present study was to identify the sites of action of CRF and urocortin 1 in the Xenopus brain and pituitary gland. Moreover, we raised the hypothesis that the external light intensity is a physiological condition controlling CRF1 expression in the pituitary melanotroph cells. By in situ hybridisation, the presence of CRF1 mRNA is demonstrated in the olfactory bulb, amygdala, nucleus accumbens, preoptic area, ventral habenular nuclei, ventromedial thalamic area, suprachiasmatic nucleus, ventral hypothalamic area, posterior tuberculum, tectum mesencephali and cerebellum. In the pituitary gland, CRF1 mRNA occurs in the intermediate and distal lobe. The optical density of the CRF1 mRNA hybridisation signal in the intermediate lobe of the pituitary gland is 59.4% stronger in white-adapted animals than in black-adapted ones, supporting the hypothesis that the environmental light condition controls CRF1 mRNA expression in melanotroph cells of X. laevis, a mechanism likely to be responsible for CRF- and/or urocortin 1-stimulated secretion of alpha-MSH.

The effects of disruption of A kinase anchoring protein-protein kinase A association on protein kinase A signalling in neuroendocrine melanotroph cells of Xenopus laevis.

The secretory activity of melanotroph cells from Xenopus laevis is regulated by multiple neurotransmitters that act through adenylyl cyclase. Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), acting on protein kinase A (PKA), stimulates the frequency of intracellular Ca(2+) oscillations and the secretory activity of the melanotroph cell. Anchoring of PKA near target proteins is essential for many PKA-regulated processes, and the family of A kinase anchoring proteins (AKAPs) is involved in the compartmentalisation of PKA type II (PKA II) regulatory subunits. In the present study, we determined to what degree cAMP signalling in Xenopus melanotrophs depends on compartmentalised PKA II. For this purpose, a membrane-permeable stearated form of Ht31 (St-Ht31), which dislodges PKA II from AKAP (thus disrupting PKA II signalling), was used. The effect of St-Ht31 on both secretion of radiolabelled peptides and intracellular Ca(2+) signalling by superfused Xenopus melanotrophs was assessed. St-Ht31 stimulated secretion but had no effect on Ca(2+) signalling. We conclude Xenopus melanotrophs possess a St-Ht31-sensitive PKA II that is associated with the exocytosis machinery and, furthermore, that Ca(2+) signalling is regulated by an AKAP-independent signalling system. Moreover, our results support a recent proposal that AKAP participates in regulating PKA activity independently from cAMP.

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor in the brain of Xenopus laevis may act as a pituitary neurohormone together with mesotocin.

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a member of the neurotrophin family, occurs abundantly in the brain, where it exerts a variety of neural functions. We previously demonstrated that BDNF also exists in the endocrine melanotroph cells in the intermediate lobe of the pituitary gland of the amphibian Xenopus laevis, suggesting that BDNF, in addition to its neural actions within the brain, can act as a hormone. In the present study, we tested whether BDNF, in addition to its neural and hormonal roles, can be released as a neurohormone from the neural pituitary lobe of X. laevis. By light immunocytochemistry, we show that BDNF is present in perikarya, in ventrolaterally projecting axons of the hypothalamic magnocellular nucleus and in the neural lobe of the pituitary gland, and that it coexists in these structures with the amphibian neurohormone, mesotocin. The neural lobe was studied in detail at the ultrastructural level. Two types of neurohaemal axon terminals were observed, occurring intermingled and in similar numbers. Type A is filled with round, moderately electron-dense secretory granules with a mean diameter of approximately 145 nm. Type B terminals contain electron-dense and smaller, ellipsoid granules (long and short diameter approximately 140 and 100 nm, respectively). BDNF is exclusively present in secretory granules of type A axon terminals. Double gold-immunolabelling revealed that BDNF coexists in these granules with mesotocin. Furthermore, we demonstrate in an superfusion study performed in vitro that mesotocin stimulates peptide release from the endocrine melanotroph cells. On the basis of these data, we propose that BDNF can act on these cells as a neurohormone.

Effect of starvation on Fos and neuropeptide immunoreactivities in the brain and pituitary gland of Xenopus laevis.

In mammals complex interactions between various brain structures and neuropeptides such as corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) and urocortin 1 (Ucn1) underlay the control of feeding by the brain. Recently, in the amphibian Xenopus laevis, CRF- and Ucn1-immunoreactivities were shown in the hypothalamic magnocellular nucleus (Mg) and evidence was obtained for their involvement in food intake. To gain a better understanding of the brain structures controlling feeding in X. laevis, the effects of 16 weeks starvation on neurones immunoreactive (ir) to Fos and neuropeptides in various brain structures were quantified. In the Mg, compared to controls, starved animals showed fewer neurones immunopositive for Fos (-55.9%), Ucn1 (-44.0%), cocaine and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) (-94.3%) and metenkephalin (ENK) (-65.0%), whereas CRF-ir neurones were 2.1 times more numerous. These differences were mainly apparent in the ventral part of the Mg, followed by the medial and dorsal part of the nucleus. In the neural lobe of the pituitary gland a 22.5% lower optical density of CART-ir was observed. In the four other brain structures investigated, starvation had different effects. The dorsomedial part of the suprachiasmatic nucleus showed 5.9 times more NPY-ir cells and in the ventromedial thalamic area a lower number of NPY-ir cells (-33.6%) was found, whereas the Edinger-Westphal nucleus contained fewer CART-ir cells (-42.2%); no effect of starvation was seen in the ventral hypothalamic nucleus. Our results support the hypothesis that in X. laevis, the Mg plays a pivotal role in feeding-related processes and, moreover, that starvation also has neuropeptide- and brain structure-specific effects in other parts of the brain and in the pituitary gland, suggesting particular roles of these structures and their neuropeptides in physiological adaptation to starvation.

In situ hybridization localization of TRH precursor and TRH receptor mRNAs in the brain and pituitary of Xenopus laevis.

We examined the distribution of the mRNAs encoding proTRH and the three TRH receptor subtypes (xTRHR1, xTRHR2, and xTRHR3) in the Xenopus laevis CNS and pituitary. A positive correlation was generally observed between the expression patterns of proTRH and xTRHR mRNAs. xTRHRs were widely expressed in the telencephalon and diencephalon, where two or even three xTRHR mRNAs were often simultaneously observed within the same brain structures. In the pituitary, xTRHR2 was selectively expressed in the distal lobe, and xTRHR3 was found exclusively in the intermediate lobe of white background-adapted animals, indicating that, in amphibians, the effect of TRH on alpha-melanotropin (alpha-MSH) secretion from melanotrope cells is mediated through the novel receptor subtype xTRHR3.

Neuroendocrine regulation of frog adrenocortical cells by neurotensin.

We previously characterized the primary structure of neurotensin (NT) from an extract of the intestine of the frog Rana esculenta. In this study, we provide evidence for the involvement of NT in the neurocrine regulation of the secretory activity of frog adrenocortical cells. Immunohistochemical studies revealed that the adrenal gland of R. esculenta is innervated by a dense network of NT-immunoreactive fibers. Graded concentrations of frog NT induced a dose-dependent stimulation of corticosterone and aldosterone secretion by frog adrenocortical explants through activation of two receptors with pEC(50) of 9.8 and 6.9. These data support the view that NT, released by nerve fibers within the frog adrenal gland, acts locally to control corticosteroid secretion.

Analysis of Xenopus melanotrope cell size and POMC-gene expression.

Flow cytometry was used to separate Xenopus melanotrope cells according to their size. The cells were then submitted to real-time RT-PCR to determine the level of POMC-gene expression. The results show a positive correlation between cell size and gene expression for cells from black-background (but not white-background) adapted animals.

Calcium influx through voltage-operated calcium channels is required for proopiomelanocortin protein expression in Xenopus melanotropes.

Melanotrope cells of Xenopus laevis generate transitory increases in intracellular Ca(2+), known as Ca(2+) oscillations. These oscillations arise from the influx of Ca(2+) through voltage-operated Ca(2+) channels (VOCCs). Such oscillations are the driving force for secretion of a-melanophore-stimulating hormone (alpha-MSH) from the cell. The influx of Ca(2+) through VOCCs initiates the mobilization of intracellular Ca(2+) to generate a Ca(2+) wave. The function of the Ca(2+) wave in the melanotrope is unknown, but its presence in the nucleus suggests a role in the regulation of gene expression, perhaps that of proopiomelanocortin (POMC), the precursor protein for alpha-MSH. To determine the possible function of Ca(2+) waves in Xenopus melanotropes, we addressed whether functional VOCCs, which are an established requirement for both secretion and Ca(2+) wave initiation, are also required to maintain POMC gene expression.

Melanotrope cells of Xenopus laevis express multiple types of high-voltage-activated Ca2+ channels.

Pituitary melanotrope cells are neuroendocrine signal transducing cells that translate physiological stimuli into adaptive hormonal responses. In this translation process, Ca2+ channels play essential roles. We have characterised which types of Ca2+ current are present in melanotropes of the amphibian Xenopus laevis, using whole-cell, voltage-clamp, patch-clamp experiments and specific blockers of the various current types. Running an activation current-voltage relationship protocol from a holding potential (HP) of -80 mV/or -110 mV, shows that Xenopus melanotropes possess only high-voltage activated (HVA) Ca2+ currents. Steady-state inactivation protocols reveal that no inactivation occurs at -80 mV, whereas 30% of the current is inactivated at -30 mV. We determined the contribution of individual channel types to the total HVA Ca2+ current, examining the effect of each channel blocker at an HP of -80 mV and -30 mV. At -80 mV, omega-conotoxin GVIA, omega-agatoxin IVA, nifedipine and SNX-482 inhibit Ca2+ currents by 21.8 +/- 4.1%, 26.1 +/- 3.1%, 24.2 +/- 2.4% and 17.9 +/- 4.7%, respectively. At -30 mV, omega-conotoxin GVIA, nifedipine and omega-agatoxin IVA inhibit Ca2+ currents by 33.8 +/- 3.0, 24.2 +/- 2.6 and 16.0 +/- 2.8%, respectively, demonstrating that these blockers substantially inhibit part of the Ca2+ current, independently from the HP. We have previously demonstrated that omega-conotoxin GVIA can block Ca2+ oscillations and steps. We now show that nifedipine and omega-agatoxin IVA do not affect the intracellular Ca2+ dynamics, whereas SNX-482 reduces the Ca2+ step amplitude. We conclude that Xenopus melanotrope cells express all four major types of HVA Ca2+ channel, as well as the resulting currents, but no low-voltage activated channels. The results provide the basis for future studies on the complex regulation of channel-mediated Ca2+ influxes into this neuroendocrine cell type as a function of its role in the animal's adaptation to external challenges.