5-HT1A and 5-HT2B receptor interaction and co-clustering regulate serotonergic neuron excitability.

Many psychiatric diseases have been associated with serotonin (5-HT) neuron dysfunction. The firing of 5-HT neurons is known to be under 5-HT1A receptor-mediated autoinhibition, but functional consequences of coexpressed receptors are unknown. Using co-immunoprecipitation, BRET, confocal, and super-resolution microscopy in hippocampal and 5-HT neurons, we present evidence that 5-HT1A and 5-HT2B receptors can form heterodimers and co-cluster at the plasma membrane of dendrites. Selective agonist stimulation of coexpressed 5-HT1A and 5-HT2B receptors prevents 5-HT1A receptor internalization and increases 5-HT2B receptor membrane clustering. Current clamp recordings of 5-HT neurons revealed that 5-HT1A receptor stimulation of acute slices from mice lacking 5-HT2B receptors in 5-HT neurons increased their firing activity trough Ca2+-activated potassium channel inhibition compared to 5-HT neurons from control mice. This work supports the hypothesis that the relative expression of 5-HT1A and 5-HT2B receptors tunes the neuronal excitability of serotonergic neurons through potassium channel regulation.

Serotonin sensing by microglia conditions the proper development of neuronal circuits and of social and adaptive skills.

The proper maturation of emotional and sensory circuits requires fine-tuning of serotonin (5-HT) level during early postnatal development. Consistently, dysfunctions of the serotonergic system have been associated with neurodevelopmental psychiatric diseases, including autism spectrum disorders (ASD). However, the mechanisms underlying the developmental effects of 5-HT remain partially unknown, one obstacle being the action of 5-HT on different cell types. Here, we focused on microglia, which play a role in brain wiring refinement, and we investigated whether the control of these cells by 5-HT is relevant for neurodevelopment and spontaneous behaviors in mice. Since the main 5-HT sensor in microglia is the 5-HT2B receptor subtype, we prevented 5-HT signaling specifically in microglia by conditional invalidation of the Htr2b gene in these cells. We observed that abrogating the serotonergic control of microglia during early postnatal development affects the phagolysosomal compartment of these cells and their proximity to dendritic spines and perturbs neuronal circuits maturation. Furthermore, this early ablation of microglial 5-HT2B receptors leads to adult hyperactivity in a novel environment and behavioral defects in sociability and flexibility. Importantly, we show that these behavioral alterations result from a developmental effect, since they are not observed when microglial Htr2b invalidation is induced later, at P30 onward. Thus, a primary alteration of 5-HT sensing in microglia, during a critical time window between birth and P30, is sufficient to impair social and flexibility skills. This link between 5-HT and microglia may explain the association between serotonergic dysfunctions and behavioral traits like impaired sociability and inadaptability to novelty, which are prominent in psychiatric disorders such as ASD.

Targeting the brain 5-HT7 receptor to prevent hypomyelination in a rodent model of perinatal white matter injuries.

Approximately 15 million babies are born prematurely every year and many will face lifetime motor and/or cognitive deficits. Children born prematurely are at higher risk of developing perinatal brain lesions, especially white matter injuries (WMI). Evidence in humans and rodents demonstrates that systemic inflammation-induced neuroinflammation, including microglial and astrocyte reactivity, is the prominent processes of WMI associated with preterm birth. Thus, a new challenge in the field of perinatal brain injuries is to develop new neuroprotective strategies to target neuroinflammation to prevent WMI. Serotonin (5-HT) and its receptors play an important role in inflammation, and emerging evidence indicates that 5-HT may regulate brain inflammation by the modulation of microglial reactivity and astrocyte functions. The present study is based on a mouse model of WMI induced by intraperitoneal (i.p.) injections of IL-1ß during the first 5 days of life. In this model, certain key lesions of preterm brain injuries can be summarized by (i) systemic inflammation, (ii) pro-inflammatory microglial and astrocyte activation, and (iii) inhibition of oligodendrocyte maturation, leading to hypomyelination. We demonstrate that Htr7 mRNA (coding for the HTR7/5-HT7 receptor) is significantly overexpressed in the anterior cortex of IL-1ß-exposed animals, suggesting it as a potential therapeutic target. LP-211 is a specific high-affinity HTR7 agonist that crosses the blood-brain barrier (BBB). When co-injected with IL-1ß, LP-211 treatment prevented glial reactivity, the down-regulation of myelin-associated proteins, and the apparition of anxiety-like phenotypes. Thus, HTR7 may represent an innovative therapeutic target to protect the developing brain from preterm brain injuries.

International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. CX. Classification of Receptors for 5-hydroxytryptamine; Pharmacology and Function.

5-HT receptors expressed throughout the human body are targets for established therapeutics and various drugs in development. Their diversity of structure and function reflects the important role 5-HT receptors play in physiologic and pathophysiological processes. The present review offers a framework for the official receptor nomenclature and a detailed understanding of each of the 14 5-HT receptor subtypes, their roles in the systems of the body, and, where appropriate, the (potential) utility of therapeutics targeting these receptors. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This review provides a comprehensive account of the classification and function of 5-hydroxytryptamine receptors, including how they are targeted for therapeutic benefit.

The serotonin 2B receptor is required in neonatal microglia to limit neuroinflammation and sickness behavior in adulthood.

Severe peripheral infections induce an adaptive sickness behavior and an innate immune reaction in various organs including the brain. On the long term, persistent alteration of microglia, the brain innate immune cells, is associated with an increased risk of psychiatric disorders. It is thus critical to identify genes and mechanisms controlling the intensity and duration of the neuroinflammation induced by peripheral immune challenges. We tested the hypothesis that the 5-HT2B receptor, the main serotonin receptor expressed by microglia, might represent a valuable candidate. First, we observed that Htr2b-/- mice, knock-out for the 5-HT2B receptor gene, developed, when exposed to a peripheral lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge, a stronger weight loss compared to wild-type mice; in addition, comparison of inflammatory markers in brain, 4 and 24 hr after LPS injection, showed that Htr2b deficiency leads to a prolonged neuroinflammation. Second, to assess the specific contribution of the microglial 5-HT2B receptor, we investigated the response to LPS of conditional knock-out mice invalidated for Htr2b in microglia only. We found that deletion of Htr2b in microglia since birth is sufficient to cause enhanced weight loss and increased neuroinflammatory response upon LPS injection at adult stage. In contrast, mice deleted for microglial Htr2b in adulthood responded normally to LPS, revealing a neonatal developmental effect. These results highlight the role of microglia in the response to a peripheral immune challenge and suggest the existence of a developmental, neonatal period, during which instruction of microglia through 5-HT2B receptors is necessary to prevent microglia overreactivity in adulthood.

Two-photon Imaging of Microglial Processes' Attraction Toward ATP or Serotonin in Acute Brain Slices.

Microglial cells are resident innate immune cells of the brain that constantly scan their environment with their long processes and, upon disruption of homeostasis, undergo rapid morphological changes. For example, a laser lesion induces in a few minutes an oriented growth of microglial processes, also called "directional motility", toward the site of injury. A similar effect can be obtained by delivering locally ATP or serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine [5-HT]). In this article, we describe a protocol to induce a directional growth of microglial processes toward a local application of ATP or 5-HT in acute brain slices of young and adult mice and to image this attraction over time by multiphoton microscopy. A simple method of quantification with free and open-source image analysis software is proposed. A challenge that still characterizes acute brain slices is the limited time, decreasing with age, during which the cells remain in a physiological state. This protocol, thus, highlights some technical improvements (medium, air-liquid interface chamber, imaging chamber with a double perfusion) aimed at optimizing the viability of microglial cells over several hours, especially in slices from adult mice.

Dimers of serotonin receptors: Impact on ligand affinity and signaling.

Membrane receptors often form complexes with other membrane proteins that directly interact with different effectors of the signal transduction machinery. G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) were for long time considered as single pharmacological entities. However, evidence for oligomerization appeared for various classes and subtypes of GPCRs. This review focuses on metabotropic serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) receptors, which belong to the rhodopsin-like class A of GPCRs, and will summarize the convergent evidence that homo- and hetero-dimers containing 5-HT receptors exist in transfected cells and in-vivo. We will show that complexes involving 5-HT receptors may acquire new signal transduction pathways and new physiological roles. In some cases, these complexes participate in disease-specific deregulations, that can be differentially affected by various drugs. Hence, selecting receptor complex-specific responses of these heterodimers may constitute an emerging strategy likely to improve beneficial therapeutic effects.

Positive regulation of raphe serotonin neurons by serotonin 2B receptors.

Serotonin is a neurotransmitter involved in many psychiatric diseases. In humans, a lack of 5-HT2B receptors is associated with serotonin-dependent phenotypes, including impulsivity and suicidality. A lack of 5-HT2B receptors in mice eliminates the effects of molecules that directly target serotonergic neurons including amphetamine derivative serotonin releasers, and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor antidepressants. In this work, we tested the hypothesis that 5-HT2B receptors directly and positively regulate raphe serotonin neuron activity. By ex vivo electrophysiological recordings, we report that stimulation by the 5-HT2B receptor agonist, BW723C86, increased the firing frequency of serotonin Pet1-positive neurons. Viral overexpression of 5-HT2B receptors in these neurons increased their excitability. Furthermore, in vivo 5-HT2B-receptor stimulation by BW723C86 counteracted 5-HT1A autoreceptor-dependent reduction in firing rate and hypothermic response in wild-type mice. By a conditional genetic ablation that eliminates 5-HT2B receptor expression specifically and exclusively from Pet1-positive serotonin neurons (Htr2b 5-HTKO mice), we demonstrated that behavioral and sensitizing effects of MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine), as well as acute behavioral and chronic neurogenic effects of the antidepressant fluoxetine, require 5-HT2B receptor expression in serotonergic neurons. In Htr2b 5-HTKO mice, dorsal raphe serotonin neurons displayed a lower firing frequency compared to control Htr2b lox/lox mice as assessed by in vivo extracellular recordings and a stronger hypothermic effect of 5-HT1A-autoreceptor stimulation was observed. The increase in head-twitch response to DOI (2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodoamphetamine) further confirmed the lower serotonergic tone resulting from the absence of 5-HT2B receptors in serotonin neurons. Together, these observations indicate that the 5-HT2B receptor acts as a direct positive modulator of serotonin Pet1-positive neurons in an opposite way as the known 5-HT1A-negative autoreceptor.

Microglia Gone Rogue: Impacts on Psychiatric Disorders across the Lifespan.

Microglia are the predominant immune response cells and professional phagocytes of the central nervous system (CNS) that have been shown to be important for brain development and homeostasis. These cells present a broad spectrum of phenotypes across stages of the lifespan and especially in CNS diseases. Their prevalence in all neurological pathologies makes it pertinent to reexamine their distinct roles during steady-state and disease conditions. A major question in the field is determining whether the clustering and phenotypical transformation of microglial cells are leading causes of pathogenesis, or potentially neuroprotective responses to the onset of disease. The recent explosive growth in our understanding of the origin and homeostasis of microglia, uncovering their roles in shaping of the neural circuitry and synaptic plasticity, allows us to discuss their emerging functions in the contexts of cognitive control and psychiatric disorders. The distinct mesodermal origin and genetic signature of microglia in contrast to other neuroglial cells also make them an interesting target for the development of therapeutics. Here, we review the physiological roles of microglia, their contribution to the effects of environmental risk factors (e.g., maternal infection, early-life stress, dietary imbalance), and their impact on psychiatric disorders initiated during development (e.g., Nasu-Hakola disease (NHD), hereditary diffuse leukoencephaly with spheroids, Rett syndrome, autism spectrum disorders (ASDs), and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)) or adulthood (e.g., alcohol and drug abuse, major depressive disorder (MDD), bipolar disorder (BD), schizophrenia, eating disorders and sleep disorders). Furthermore, we discuss the changes in microglial functions in the context of cognitive aging, and review their implication in neurodegenerative diseases of the aged adult (e.g., Alzheimer's and Parkinson's). Taking into account the recent identification of microglia-specific markers, and the availability of compounds that target these cells selectively in vivo, we consider the prospect of disease intervention via the microglial route.

Serotonin 2B receptor slows disease progression and prevents degeneration of spinal cord mononuclear phagocytes in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

Microglia are the resident mononuclear phagocytes of the central nervous system and have been implicated in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). During neurodegeneration, microglial activation is accompanied by infiltration of circulating monocytes, leading to production of multiple inflammatory mediators in the spinal cord. Degenerative alterations in mononuclear phagocytes are commonly observed during neurodegenerative diseases, yet little is known concerning the mechanisms leading to their degeneration, or the consequences on disease progression. Here we observed that the serotonin 2B receptor (5-HT2B), a serotonin receptor expressed in microglia, is upregulated in the spinal cord of three different transgenic mouse models of ALS. In mutant SOD1 mice, this upregulation was restricted to cells positive for CD11b, a marker of mononuclear phagocytes. Ablation of 5-HT2B receptor in transgenic ALS mice expressing mutant SOD1 resulted in increased degeneration of mononuclear phagocytes, as evidenced by fragmentation of Iba1-positive cellular processes. This was accompanied by decreased expression of key neuroinflammatory genes but also loss of expression of homeostatic microglial genes. Importantly, the dramatic effect of 5-HT2B receptor ablation on mononuclear phagocytes was associated with acceleration of disease progression. To determine the translational relevance of these results, we studied polymorphisms in the human HTR2B gene, which encodes the 5-HT2B receptor, in a large cohort of ALS patients. In this cohort, the C allele of SNP rs10199752 in HTR2B was associated with longer survival. Moreover, patients carrying one copy of the C allele of SNP rs10199752 showed increased 5-HT2B mRNA in spinal cord and displayed less pronounced degeneration of Iba1 positive cells than patients carrying two copies of the more common A allele. Thus, the 5-HT2B receptor limits degeneration of spinal cord mononuclear phagocytes, most likely microglia, and slows disease progression in ALS. Targeting this receptor might be therapeutically useful.

Serotonin Modulates Developmental Microglia via 5-HT2B Receptors: Potential Implication during Synaptic Refinement of Retinogeniculate Projections.

Maturation of functional neuronal circuits during central nervous system development relies on sophisticated mechanisms. First, axonal and dendritic growth should reach appropriate targets for correct synapse elaboration. Second, pruning and neuronal death are required to eliminate redundant or inappropriate neuronal connections. Serotonin, in addition to its role as a neurotransmitter, actively participates in postnatal establishment and refinement of brain wiring in mammals. Brain resident macrophages, that is, microglia, also play an important role in developmentally regulated neuronal death as well as in synaptic maturation and elimination. Here, we tested the hypothesis of cross-regulation between microglia and serotonin during postnatal brain development in a mouse model of synaptic refinement. We found expression of the serotonin 5-HT2B receptor on postnatal microglia, suggesting that serotonin could participate in temporal and spatial synchronization of microglial functions. Using two-photon microscopy, acute brain slices, and local delivery of serotonin, we observed that microglial processes moved rapidly toward the source of serotonin in Htr2B(+/+) mice, but not in Htr2B(-/-) mice lacking the 5-HT2B receptor. We then investigated whether some developmental steps known to be controlled by serotonin could potentially result from microglia sensitivity to serotonin. Using an in vivo model of synaptic refinement during early brain development, we investigated the maturation of the retinal projections to the thalamus and observed that Htr2B(-/-) mice present anatomical alterations of the ipsilateral projecting area of retinal axons into the thalamus. In addition, activation markers were upregulated in microglia from Htr2B(-/-) compared to control neonates, in the absence of apparent morphological modifications. These results support the hypothesis that serotonin interacts with microglial cells and these interactions participate in brain maturation.

Vezatin is essential for dendritic spine morphogenesis and functional synaptic maturation.

Vezatin is an integral membrane protein associated with cell-cell adhesion complex and actin cytoskeleton. It is expressed in the developing and mature mammalian brain, but its neuronal function is unknown. Here, we show that Vezatin localizes in spines in mature mouse hippocampal neurons and codistributes with PSD95, a major scaffolding protein of the excitatory postsynaptic density. Forebrain-specific conditional ablation of Vezatin induced anxiety-like behavior and impaired cued fear-conditioning memory response. Vezatin knock-down in cultured hippocampal neurons and Vezatin conditional knock-out in mice led to a significantly increased proportion of stubby spines and a reduced proportion of mature dendritic spines. PSD95 remained tethered to presynaptic terminals in Vezatin-deficient hippocampal neurons, suggesting that the reduced expression of Vezatin does not compromise the maintenance of synaptic connections. Accordingly, neither the amplitude nor the frequency of miniature EPSCs was affected in Vezatin-deficient hippocampal neurons. However, the AMPA/NMDA ratio of evoked EPSCs was reduced, suggesting impaired functional maturation of excitatory synapses. These results suggest a role of Vezatin in dendritic spine morphogenesis and functional synaptic maturation.

[Quality proceedings in point-of-care testing: tetanus test example]. / Démarche qualité en biologie délocalisée: exemple du test tétanos.

In front of the increase of frequentation of emergency departments for pathological situations associated with tetanic risk, and the difficulty to know if the patients are immunized or not, the consequence is an unsuitable consumption of vaccination and/or antitetanic immunoglobulins. At the emergency department of Armentieres's hospital, in a perspective of an accreditation and following a medical request, we wanted to improve patient's care with tetanic risk wound by using a quick test for the detection of specific antitetanic antibodies (tetanos Fumouze test), under laboratory's authority. This test would allow a quickly and reliable immunity evaluation of patients with tetanic risk wound. The use of this point-of-care test was made possible with a good cooperation between clinicians, biologists and nurses. After six months, we wanted to evaluate monitoring and respect for qualities procedures established by laboratory and the medical and cost impact of this test.

Developmental neuronal death in hippocampus requires the microglial CD11b integrin and DAP12 immunoreceptor.

In several brain regions, microglia actively promote neuronal apoptosis during development. However, molecular actors leading microglia to trigger death remain mostly unknown. Here, we show that, in the developing hippocampus, apoptotic neurons are contacted by microglia expressing both the integrin CD11b and the immunoreceptor DAP12. We demonstrate that developmental apoptosis decreases in mice deficient for CD11b or DAP12. In addition, function-blocking antibodies directed against CD11b decrease neuronal death when injected into wild-type neonates, but have no effect when injected into DAP12-deficient littermates. This demonstrates that DAP12 and CD11b act in converging pathways to induce neuronal death. Finally, we show that DAP12 and CD11b control the production of microglial superoxide ions, which kill the neurons. Thus, our data show that the process of developmental neuronal death triggered by microglia is similar to the elimination of pathogenic cells by the innate immune cells.

Prenatal activation of microglia induces delayed impairment of glutamatergic synaptic function.

BACKGROUND: Epidemiological studies have linked maternal infection during pregnancy to later development of neuropsychiatric disorders in the offspring. In mice, experimental inflammation during embryonic development impairs behavioral and cognitive performances in adulthood. Synaptic dysfunctions may be at the origin of cognitive impairments, however the link between prenatal inflammation and synaptic defects remains to be established. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: In this study, we show that prenatal alteration of microglial function, including inflammation, induces delayed synaptic dysfunction in the adult. DAP12 is a microglial signaling protein expressed around birth, mutations of which in the human induces the Nasu-Hakola disease, characterized by early dementia. We presently report that synaptic excitatory currents in mice bearing a loss-of-function mutation in the DAP12 gene (DAP12(KI) mice) display enhanced relative contribution of AMPA. Furthermore, neurons from DAP12(KI) P0 pups cultured without microglia develop similar synaptic alterations, suggesting that a prenatal dysfunction of microglia may impact synaptic function in the adult. As we observed that DAP12(KI) microglia overexpress genes for IL1beta, IL6 and NOS2, which are inflammatory proteins, we analyzed the impact of a pharmacologically-induced prenatal inflammation on synaptic function. Maternal injection of lipopolysaccharides induced activation of microglia at birth and alteration of glutamatergic synapses in the adult offspring. Finally, neurons cultured from neonates born to inflamed mothers and cultured without microglia also displayed altered neuronal activity. CONCLUSION/SIGNIFICANCE: Our results demonstrate that prenatal inflammation is sufficient to induce synaptic alterations with delay. We propose that these alterations triggered by prenatal activation of microglia provide a cellular basis for the neuropsychiatric defects induced by prenatal inflammation.

Microglial control of neuronal death and synaptic properties.

Microglia have long been characterized by their immune function in the nervous system and are still mainly considered in a beneficial versus detrimental dialectic. However a review of literature enables to shed novel lights on microglial function under physiological conditions. It is now relevant to position these cells as full time partners of neuronal function and more specifically of synaptogenesis and developmental apoptosis. Indeed, microglia can actively control neuronal death. It has actually been shown in retina that microglial nerve growth factor (NGF) is necessary for the developmental apoptosis to occur. Similarly, in cerebellum, microglia induces developmental Purkinje cells death through respiratory burst. Furthermore, in spinal cord, microglial TNFalpha commits motoneurons to a neurotrophic dependent developmental apoptosis. Microglia can also control synaptogenesis. This is suggested by the fact that a mutation in KARAP/DAP12, a key protein of microglial activation impacts synaptic functions in hippocampus, and synapses protein content. In addition it has been now demonstrated that microglial brain-derived neurotrophin factor (BDNF) directly regulates synaptic properties in spinal cord. In conclusion, microglia can control neuronal function under physiological conditions and it is known that neuronal activity reciprocally controls microglial activation. We will discuss the importance of this cross-talk which allows microglia to orchestrate the balance between synaptogenesis and neuronal death occurring during development or injuries.

Impaired synaptic function in the microglial KARAP/DAP12-deficient mouse.

Several proteins are expressed in both immune and nervous systems. However, their putative nonimmune functions in the brain remain poorly understood. KARAP/DAP12 is a transmembrane polypeptide associated with cell-surface receptors in hematopoeitic cells. Its mutation in humans induces Nasu-Hakola disease, characterized by presenile dementia and demyelinization. However, alteration of white matter occurs months after the onset of neuropsychiatric symptoms, suggesting that other neuronal alterations occur in the early phases of the disease. We hypothesized that KARAP/DAP12 may impact synaptic function. In mice deficient for KARAP/DAP12 function, long-term potentiation was enhanced and was partly NMDA receptor (NMDAR) independent. This effect was accompanied by changes in synaptic glutamate receptor content, as detected by the increased rectification of AMPA receptor EPSCs and increased sensitivity of NMDAR EPSCs to ifenprodil. Biochemical analysis of synaptic proteins confirmed these electrophysiological data. In mutants, the AMPA receptor GluR2 subunit expression was decreased only in the postsynaptic densities but not in the whole membrane fraction, demonstrating specific impairment of synaptic receptor accumulation. Alteration of the BNDF-tyrosine kinase receptor B (TrkB) signaling in the mutant was demonstrated by the dramatic decrease of synaptic TrkB with no change in other regulatory or scaffolding proteins. Finally, KARAP/DAP12 was detected only in microglia but not in neurons, astrocytes, or oligodendrocytes. KARAP/DAP12 may thus alter microglial physiology and subsequently synaptic function and plasticity through a novel microglia-neuron interaction.

Membrane-cytoskeleton interactions during the formation of the immunological synapse and subsequent T-cell activation.

Upon antigen recognition, T cells undergo substantial membrane and cytoskeletal rearrangements that lead to the formation of the immunological synapse and are necessary for subsequent T-cell activation. However, little is known about how membrane and cytoskeletal molecules interact during these processes. Here we discuss the involvement of the membrane-microfilament linker ezrin. We propose that ezrin is a component of the cytoskeleton-mediated architecture of the immunological synapse that plays a role in T-cell receptor clustering, protein kinase C theta translocation and intracellular signaling.

High serum thymus and activation-regulated chemokine levels in the lymphocytic variant of the hypereosinophilic syndrome.

The idiopathic hypereosinophilic syndrome is associated with expansion of an IL-5-producing T-cell subset in a subgroup of patients. Identification of such patients is critical to adequate management because there is some evidence that they present an increased risk for development of T-cell lymphoma. Although the T(H)2-like cells often bear an aberrant surface phenotype and can readily be detected with flow cytometry, we now show that lymphocyte phenotyping might be normal in some cases. In contrast, serum thymus and activation-regulated chemokine levels are consistently increased in such patients compared with others with persistent idiopathic hyper-eosinophilia and could therefore represent a useful diagnostic tool.