Calmodulin complexes with brain and muscle creatine kinase peptides.

Calmodulin (CaM) is a ubiquitous Ca2+ sensing protein that binds to and modulates numerous target proteins and enzymes during cellular signaling processes. A large number of CaM-target complexes have been identified and structurally characterized, revealing a wide diversity of CaM-binding modes. A newly identified target is creatine kinase (CK), a central enzyme in cellular energy homeostasis. This study reports two high-resolution X-ray structures, determined to 1.24 â€‹Å and 1.43 â€‹Å resolution, of calmodulin in complex with peptides from human brain and muscle CK, respectively. Both complexes adopt a rare extended binding mode with an observed stoichiometry of 1:2 CaM:peptide, confirmed by isothermal titration calorimetry, suggesting that each CaM domain independently binds one CK peptide in a Ca2+-depended manner. While the overall binding mode is similar between the structures with muscle or brain-type CK peptides, the most significant difference is the opposite binding orientation of the peptides in the N-terminal domain. This may extrapolate into distinct binding modes and regulation of the full-length CK isoforms. The structural insights gained in this study strengthen the link between cellular energy homeostasis and Ca2+-mediated cell signaling and may shed light on ways by which cells can 'fine tune' their energy levels to match the spatial and temporal demands.

Allosteric reversion of Haemophilus influenzae ß-carbonic anhydrase via a proline shift.

Haemophilus influenzae ß-carbonic anhydrase (HICA) has been reverse-engineered in the allosteric site region to resemble the nonallosteric Pisum sativum enzyme in order to identify critical features of allostery and intersusbunit communication. Three variants (W39V/G41A, P48S/A49P, and W39V/G41A/P48S/A49P) were identified, through a comparison with a crystal structure of nonallosteric P. sativum ß-carbonic anhydrase (PSCA, PDB 1EKJ ), to potentially revert HICA to a nonallosteric enzyme. The W39V/G41A and P48S/A49P mutations decreased the apparent kcat/Km proton dependence from 4 to 2 and 1, respectively, increasing the overall maximal kcat/Km to 16 ± 2 µM(-1) s(-1) (380% of wild type) and 17 ± 3 µM(-1) s(-1) (405% of wild type). The pKa values of the metal-bound water molecule based on the pH-rate profile kinetics (8.32 ± 0.04 for W39V/G41A and 8.3 ± 0.1 for P48S/A49P) were also slightly higher than that for the wild-type enzyme (7.74 ± 0.04). The P48S/A49P variant has lost all pH-rate cooperativity. The W39V/G41A/P48S/A49P variant's kinetics were unusual and were fit with a log-linear function with a slope 0.9 ± 0.2. The crystal structure of the W39V/G41A variant revealed an active site very similar to the T-state wild-type oligomer with bicarbonate trapped in the escort site. By contrast, the X-ray crystal structure of a proline shift variant (P48S/A49P) reveals that it has adopted an active site conformation nearly identical to that of nonallosteric ß-carbonic anhydrase (R-state) for one chain, including a tight association with the dimer-exchanged N-terminal helices; the second chain in the asymmetric unit is associated in a biologically relevant oligomer, but it adopts a T-state conformation that is not capped by dimer-exchanged N-terminal helices. The hybrid R/T nature of HICA P48S/A49P structurally recapitulates the interruption of pH-rate cooperativity observed for this variant. Comparison of the conformations of the R and T chains of P48S/A49P suggests a new hypothesis to explain HICA allosteric communication that is mediated by the N-terminal helices and anion binding at the dimer interface.

Identification and characterization of a carboxysomal γ-carbonic anhydrase from the cyanobacterium Nostoc sp. PCC 7120.

Carboxysomes are proteinaceous microcompartments that encapsulate carbonic anhydrase (CA) and ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco); carboxysomes, therefore, catalyze reversible HCO3 (-) dehydration and the subsequent fixation of CO2. The N- and C-terminal domains of the ß-carboxysome scaffold protein CcmM participate in a network of protein-protein interactions that are essential for carboxysome biogenesis, organization, and function. The N-terminal domain of CcmM in the thermophile Thermosynechococcus elongatus BP-1 is also a catalytically active, redox regulated γ-CA. To experimentally determine if CcmM from a mesophilic cyanobacterium is active, we cloned, expressed and purified recombinant, full-length CcmM from Nostoc sp. PCC 7120 as well as the N-terminal 209 amino acid γ-CA-like domain. Both recombinant proteins displayed ethoxyzolamide-sensitive CA activity in mass spectrometric assays, as did the carboxysome-enriched TP fraction. NstCcmM209 was characterized as a moderately active and efficient γ-CA with a k cat of 2.0 × 10(4) s(-1) and k cat/K m of 4.1 × 10(6) M(-1) s(-1) at 25 °C and pH 8, a pH optimum between 8 and 9.5 and a temperature optimum spanning 25-35 °C. NstCcmM209 also catalyzed the hydrolysis of the CO2 analog carbonyl sulfide. Circular dichroism and intrinsic tryptophan fluorescence analysis demonstrated that NstCcmM209 was progressively and irreversibly denatured above 50 °C. NstCcmM209 activity was inhibited by the reducing agent tris(hydroxymethyl)phosphine, an effect that was fully reversed by a molar excess of diamide, a thiol oxidizing agent, consistent with oxidative activation being a universal regulatory mechanism of CcmM orthologs. Immunogold electron microscopy and Western blot analysis of TP pellets indicated that Rubisco and CcmM co-localize and are concentrated in Nostoc sp. PCC 7120 carboxysomes.

Structure and catalytic mechanism of ß-carbonic anhydrases.

The ß-carbonic anhydrases (ß-CAs) are a structurally distinct family of carbonic anhydrase that is widely distributed in microorganisms, algae, plants, and invertebrates. Like all carbonic anhydrases, ß-CAs catalyze the reaction CO2 + H2O ⇆ HCO3 (-) + H(+), and is typically associated with other enzymes that produce or utilize CO2 or HCO3 (-). ß-CA is required for normal growth for many organisms. Unique among the five different families of carbonic anhydrases, ß-CA is the only family of carbonic anhydrase to exhibit allostery. This chapter summarizes the structure, catalytic mechanism, and allosteric regulation of ß-CA.

Structure and catalytic mechanism of nicotinate (vitamin B3) degradative enzyme maleamate amidohydrolase from Bordetella bronchiseptica RB50.

The penultimate reaction in the oxidative degradation of nicotinate (vitamin B(3)) to fumarate in several species of aerobic bacteria is the hydrolytic deamination of maleamate to maleate, catalyzed by maleamate amidohydrolase (NicF). Although it has been considered a model system for bacterial degradation of N-heterocyclic compounds, only recently have gene clusters that encode the enzymes of this catabolic pathway been identified to allow detailed investigations concerning the structural basis of their mechanisms. Here, the Bb1774 gene from Bordetella bronchiseptica RB50, putatively annotated as nicF, has been cloned, and the recombinant enzyme, overexpressed and purified from Escherichia coli, is shown to catalyze efficiently the hydrolysis of maleamate to maleate and ammonium ion. Steady-state kinetic analysis of the reaction by isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) established k(cat) and K(M) values (pH 7.5 and 25 °C) of 11.7 ± 0.2 s(-1) and 128 ± 6 µM, respectively. The observed K(D) of the NicF·maleate (E·P) complex, also measured by ITC, is approximated to be 3.8 ± 0.4 mM. The crystal structure of NicF, determined at 2.4 Å using molecular replacement, shows that the enzyme belongs to the cysteine hydrolase superfamily. The structure provides insight concerning the roles of potential catalytically important residues, most notably a conserved catalytic triad (Asp29, Lys117, and Cys150) observed in the proximity of a conserved non-proline cis-peptide bond within a small cavity that is likely the active site. On the basis of this structural information, the hydrolysis of maleamate is proposed to proceed by a nucleophilic addition-elimination sequence involving the thiolate side chain of Cys150.

Re(CO)(3)(H(2)O)(3)(+) binding to lysozyme: structure and reactivity.

The reaction of Re(CO)(3)(H(2)O)(3)(+) with hen egg white lysozyme in aqueous solution results in a single covalent adduct. Both NMR spectroscopy and single crystal X-ray diffraction show that the rhenium tricarbonyl cation binds to His15 via replacement of one of the coordinated water molecules. The formation of this adduct does not greatly affect the structure of the protein.

Co(II)-substituted Haemophilus influenzae ß-carbonic anhydrase: spectral evidence for allosteric regulation by pH and bicarbonate ion.

Cobalt(II)-substituted Haemophilus influenzae ß-carbonic anhydrase (HICA) has been produced by overexpression in minimal media supplemented with CoCl(2), enabling kinetic, structural, and spectroscopic characterization. Co(II)-substituted HICA (Co-HICA) has comparable catalytic activity to that of wild-type enzyme with k(cat)=82±19 ms(-1) (120% of wild-type). The X-ray crystal structure of Co-HICA was determined to 2.5Å resolution, and is similar to the zinc enzyme. The absorption spectrum of Co-HICA is consistent with four-coordinate geometry. pH-dependent changes in the absorption spectrum of Co-HICA, including an increase in molar absorptivity and a red shift of a 580 nm peak with decreasing pH, correlate with the pH dependence of k(cat)/K(m). The absence of isosbestic points in the pH-dependent absorption spectra suggest that more than two absorbing species are present. The addition of bicarbonate ion at pH 8.0 triggers spectral changes in the metal coordination sphere that mimic that of lowering pH, supporting its hypothesized role as an allosteric inhibitor of HICA. Homogeneously (99±1% Co) and heterogeneously (52±5% Co) substituted Co-HICA have distinctly different colors and absorption spectra, suggesting that the metal ions in the active sites in the allosteric dimer of Co-HICA engage in intersubunit communication.

Specific derivatization of lysozyme in aqueous solution with Re(CO)3(H2O)3(+).

The reaction of Re(CO)(3)(H(2)O)(3)(+) with hen egg lysozyme in aqueous solution results in a single covalent adduct; single crystal X-ray diffraction shows that the rhenium tricarbonyl cation binds to His15 in two significantly populated rotamer conformations.

Evidence for a bicarbonate "escort" site in Haemophilus influenzae beta-carbonic anhydrase .

The Haemophilus influenzae beta-carbonic anhydrase (HICA) allosteric site variants V47A and G41A were overexpressed and purified to homogeneity. These variants have k(cat)/K(m) values similar to that of the wild-type enzyme and exhibit a similar dramatic decrease in catalytic activity at pH <8.0. However, both HICA-G41A and -V47A were serendipitously found to bind sulfate ion or bicarbonate ion near pairs of Glu50 and Arg64 residues located on the dimerization interface. In the case of HICA-V47A, bicarbonate ions simultaneously bind to both the dimerization interface and the allosteric sites. For HICA-G41A, two of 12 chains in the asymmetric unit bind bicarbonate ion exclusively at the dimerization interface, while the remaining 10 chains bind bicarbonate ion exclusively at the allosteric site. We propose that the new anion binding site along the dimerization interface of HICA is an "escort" site that represents an intermediate along the ingress and egress route of bicarbonate ion to and from the allosteric binding site, respectively. The structural evidence for sulfate binding at the escort site suggests that the mechanism of sulfate activation of HICA is the result of sulfate ion competing for bicarbonate at the escort site, preventing passage of bicarbonate from the bulk solution to its allosteric site.

Structure and catalytic mechanism of the beta-carbonic anhydrases.

The beta-carbonic anhydrases (beta-CAs) are a diverse but structurally related group of zinc-metalloenzymes found in eubacteria, plant chloroplasts, red and green algae, and in the Archaea. The enzyme catalyzes the rapid interconversion of CO(2) and H(2)O to HCO(3)(-) and H(+), and is believed to be associated with metabolic enzymes that consume or produce CO(2) or HCO(3)(-). For many organisms, beta-CA is essential for growth at atmospheric concentrations of CO(2). Of the five evolutionarily distinct classes of carbonic anhydrase, beta-CA is the only one known to exhibit allosterism. Here we review the structure and catalytic mechanism of beta-CA, including the structural basis for allosteric regulation.

Allosteric site variants of Haemophilus influenzae beta-carbonic anhydrase.

Haemophilus influenzae beta-carbonic anhydrase (HICA) is hypothesized to be an allosteric protein that is regulated by the binding of bicarbonate ion to a non-catalytic (inhibitory) site that controls the ligation of Asp44 to the catalytically essential zinc ion. We report here the X-ray crystallographic structures of two variants (W39F and Y181F) involved in the binding of bicarbonate ion in the non-catalytic site and an active-site variant (D44N) that is incapable of forming a strong zinc ligand. The alteration of Trp39 to Phe increases the apparent K(i) for bicarbonate inhibition by 4.8-fold. While the structures of W39F and Y181F are very similar to the wild-type enzyme, the X-ray crystal structure of the D44N variant reveals that it has adopted an active-site conformation nearly identical to that of non-allosteric beta-carbonic anhydrases. We propose that the structure of the D44N variant is likely to be representative of the active conformation of the enzyme. These results lend additional support to the hypothesis that HICA is an allosteric enzyme that can adopt active and inactive conformations, the latter of which is stabilized by bicarbonate ion binding to a non-catalytic site.

Identification of a novel noncatalytic bicarbonate binding site in eubacterial beta-carbonic anhydrase.

The structures of beta class carbonic anhydrases (beta-CAs) determined so far fall into two distinct subclasses based on the observed coordination of the catalytic zinc (Zn2+) ion. The subclass of beta-CAs that coordinate Zn2+ tetrahedrally with four protein-derived ligands is represented by the structures of orthologues from Porphyridium purpureum, Escherichia coli, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Here we present the structure of an additional member of that subclass, that from Haemophilus influenzae, as well as detailed kinetic analysis, revealing the correspondence between structural classification and kinetic profile for this subclass. In addition, we identify a unique, noncatalytic binding mode for the substrate bicarbonate that occurs in both the H. influenzae and E. coli enzymes. The kinetic and structural analysis indicates that binding of bicarbonate in this site of the enzyme may modulate its activity by influencing a pH-dependent, cooperative transition between active and inactive forms. We hypothesize that the two structural subclasses of beta-CAs may provide models for the proposed active and inactive forms of the H. influenzae and E. coli enzymes.

Examination of the role of Gln-158 in the mechanism of CO(2) hydration catalyzed by beta-carbonic anhydrase from Arabidopsis thaliana.

We have cloned and overexpressed a variant of Arabidopsis thaliana beta-carbonic anhydrase (Q158A) that deletes the functional equivalent of the backbone amide NH of Thr-199 in human alpha-carbonic anhydrase II. The latter residue is hypothesized to be important in catalyzing the rate of CO(2)(-) HCO (3)(-) interconversion in alpha-carbonic anhydrase but this hypothesis is not directly testable in that enzyme. Kinetic studies of a variant of the functionally equivalent residue in A. thaliana beta-carbonic anhydrase provide direct evidence for the role of this residue in beta-carbonic anhydrase. Namely, the mutation of Gln-158 to Ala results in a significant decrease in the maximal k(cat) (33% of wild type) at steady state and the maximal rate of CO(2)(-) HCO(2)(-) exchange at chemical equilibrium as measured by R(1)/[E] (7% of wild type), while leaving the maximal rate of H(+) transfer, as measured by k(cat) at steady state, or R(H(2)O)) at chemical equilibrium, largely unaffected.

Complementation of the yeast deletion mutant DeltaNCE103 by members of the beta class of carbonic anhydrases is dependent on carbonic anhydrase activity rather than on antioxidant activity.

In recent years, members of the beta class of CAs (carbonic anhydrases) have been shown to complement Delta NCE103, a yeast strain unable to grow under aerobic conditions. The activity required for complementation of Delta NCE103 by tobacco chloroplast CA was studied by site-directed mutagenesis. E196A (Glu196-->Ala), a mutated tobacco CA with low levels of CA activity, complemented Delta NCE103. To determine whether restoration of Delta NCE103 was due to residual levels of CA activity or whether it was related to previously proposed antioxidant activity of CAs [Götz, Gnann and Zimmermann (1999) Yeast 15, 855-864], additional complementation analysis was performed using human CAII, an alpha CA structurally unrelated to the beta class of CAs to which the tobacco protein belongs. Human CAII complemented Delta NCE103, strongly arguing that CA activity is responsible for the complementation of Delta NCE103. Consistent with this conclusion, recombinant NCE103 synthesized in Escherichia coli shows CA activity, and Delta NCE103 expressing the tobacco chloroplast CA exhibits the same sensitivity to H2O2 as the wild-type strain.

Chemical rescue of proton transfer in catalysis by carbonic anhydrases in the beta- and gamma-class.

Catalysis of the dehydration of HCO(3)(-) by carbonic anhydrase requires proton transfer from solution to the zinc-bound hydroxide. Carbonic anhydrases in each of the alpha, beta, and gamma classes, examples of convergent evolution, appear to have a side chain extending into the active site cavity that acts as a proton shuttle to facilitate this proton transfer, with His 64 being the most prominent example in the alpha class. We have investigated chemical rescue of mutants in two of these classes in which a proton shuttle has been replaced with a residue that does not transfer protons: H216N carbonic anhydrase from Arabidopsis thaliana (beta class) and E84A carbonic anhydrase from the archeon Methanosarcina thermophila (gamma class). A series of structurally homologous imidazole and pyridine buffers were used as proton acceptors in the activation of CO(2) hydration at steady state and as proton donors of the exchange of (18)O between CO(2) and water at chemical equilibrium. Free energy plots of the rate constants for this intermolecular proton transfer as a function of the difference in pK(a) of donor and acceptor showed extensive curvature, indicating a small intrinsic kinetic barrier for the proton transfers. Application of Marcus rate theory allowed quantitative estimates of the intrinsic kinetic barrier which were near 0.3 kcal/mol with work functions in the range of 7-11 kcal/mol for mutants in the beta and gamma class, similar to results obtained for mutants of carbonic anhydrase in the alpha class. The low values of the intrinsic kinetic barrier for all three classes of carbonic anhydrase reflect proton transfer processes that are consistent with a model of very rapid proton transfer through a flexible matrix of hydrogen-bonded solvent structures sequestered within the active sites of the carbonic anhydrases.

Kinetic characterization of wild-type and proton transfer-impaired variants of beta-carbonic anhydrase from Arabidopsis thaliana.

We have cloned and overexpressed a truncated, recombinant form of beta-carbonic anhydrase from Arabidopsis thaliana. The wild-type enzyme and two site-directed variants, H216N and Y212F, have been kinetically characterized both at steady state by stopped-flow spectrophotometry and at chemical equilibrium by (18)O isotope exchange methods. The wild-type enzyme has a maximal k(cat) for CO2 hydration of 320 ms(-1) and is rate limited by proton transfer involving two residues with apparent pK(a) values of 6.0 and 8.7. The mutant enzyme H216N has a maximal k(cat) at high pH that is 43% that of wild type, but is only 5% that of wild type at pH 7.0. (18)O exchange studies reveal that the effect of the mutations H216N or Y212F is primarily on proton transfer steps in the catalytic mechanism and not in the rate of CO2-HCO3- exchange. These results suggest that residues His-216 and Tyr-212 are both important for efficient proton transfer in A. thaliana carbonic anhydrase.