Ataxia-telangiectasia in Latin America: clinical features, immunodeficiency, and mortality in a multicenter study.

Ataxia-telangiectasia (AT) is a rare genetic disorder leading to neurological defects, telangiectasias, and immunodeficiency. We aimed to study the clinical and immunological features of Latin American patients with AT and analyze factors associated with mortality. Referral centers from 9 Latin American countries participated in this retrospective cohort study, and 218 patients were included. Median (IQR) ages at symptom onset and diagnosis were 1.0 (1.0-2.0)  and 5.0 (3.0-8.0) years, respectively. Most patients presented recurrent airway infections, which was significantly associated with IgA deficiency. IgA deficiency was observed in 60.8% of patients and IgG deficiency in 28.6%. T- and B-lymphopenias were also present in most cases. Mean survival was 24.2 years, and Kaplan-Meier 20-year-survival rate was 52.6%, with higher mortality associated with female gender and low IgG levels. These findings suggest that immunologic status should be investigated in all patients with AT.

Chronic neutropenia in childhood: experience of a tertiary center

Abstract Objective: To assess the prevalence of chronic neutropenia (CN) and the clinical profile of patients with CN aged up to 18 years, followed in the pediatric hematology, rheumatology, or immunology outpatient clinic of a tertiary medical center from May 1, 2018, to 30 April 2019. Methods: Retrospective observational study carried out by collecting data from the patient's medical charts. CN was defined as absolute neutrophil count (ANC) below 1.5 × 109/L lasting over three months. Autoimmune neutropenia (AIN) was defined by clinical criteria and an over twofold increase in ANC after glucocorticoid stimulation. AIN was considered secondary when associated with autoimmune or immunoregulatory disorders. Wilcoxon and Fisher's exact tests were used to compare variables; the significance level was 5 %. Results: A total of 1,039 patients were evaluated; 217 (20 %) presented CN. Twenty-one (2 %) had AIN, classified as primary in 57 % of the cases. The average age at the onset of symptoms was 38.6 months. During follow-up, patients had 4.2 infections on average; frequency was higher among patients with secondary AIN (p = 003). Isolated neutropenia occurred in 43 % of the patients with AIN. Neutropenia resolved in eight (38 %) of the 21 patients with AIN within 19.6 months on average. Eight patients with secondary AIN met the criteria for Inborn Errors of Immunity. Conclusion: AIN prevalence was 2 %. Most cases were first evaluated by a pediatric immunologist or rheumatologist rather than a pediatric hematologist. This study highlights the need for a multidisciplinary approach involving a pediatric immunologist, rheumatologist, and hematologist.

Chronic neutropenia in childhood: experience of a tertiary center.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the prevalence of chronic neutropenia (CN) and the clinical profile of patients with CN aged up to 18 years, followed in the pediatric hematology, rheumatology, or immunology outpatient clinic of a tertiary medical center from May 1, 2018, to 30 April 2019. METHODS: Retrospective observational study carried out by collecting data from the patient's medical charts. CN was defined as absolute neutrophil count (ANC) below 1.5 × 109/L lasting over three months. Autoimmune neutropenia (AIN) was defined by clinical criteria and an over twofold increase in ANC after glucocorticoid stimulation. AIN was considered secondary when associated with autoimmune or immunoregulatory disorders. Wilcoxon and Fisher's exact tests were used to compare variables; the significance level was 5 %. RESULTS: A total of 1,039 patients were evaluated; 217 (20 %) presented CN. Twenty-one (2 %) had AIN, classified as primary in 57 % of the cases. The average age at the onset of symptoms was 38.6 months. During follow-up, patients had 4.2 infections on average; frequency was higher among patients with secondary AIN (p = 003). Isolated neutropenia occurred in 43 % of the patients with AIN. Neutropenia resolved in eight (38 %) of the 21 patients with AIN within 19.6 months on average. Eight patients with secondary AIN met the criteria for Inborn Errors of Immunity. CONCLUSION: AIN prevalence was 2 %. Most cases were first evaluated by a pediatric immunologist or rheumatologist rather than a pediatric hematologist. This study highlights the need for a multidisciplinary approach involving a pediatric immunologist, rheumatologist, and hematologist.

Proposal to Screen for Zinc and Selenium in Patients with IgA Deficiency.

The increase in life expectancy can be a consequence of the world's socioeconomic, sanitary and nutritional conditions. Some studies have demonstrated that individuals with a satisfactory diet variety score present a lower risk of malnutrition and better health status. Zinc and selenium are important micronutrients that play a role in many biochemical and physiological processes of the immune system. Deficient individuals can present both innate and adaptive immunity abnormalities and increased susceptibility to infections. Primary immunodeficiency diseases, also known as inborn errors of immunity, are genetic disorders classically characterized by an increased susceptibility to infection and/or dysregulation of a specific immunologic pathway. IgA deficiency (IgAD) is the most common primary antibody deficiency. This disease is defined as serum IgA levels lower than 7 mg/dL and normal IgG and IgM levels in individuals older than four years. Although many patients are asymptomatic, selected patients suffer from different clinical complications, such as pulmonary infections, allergies, autoimmune diseases, gastrointestinal disorders and malignancy. Knowing the nutritional status as well as the risk of zinc and selenium deficiency could be helpful for the management of IgAD patients. OBJECTIVES: to investigate the anthropometric, biochemical, and nutritional profiles and the status of zinc and selenium in patients with IgAD. METHODS: in this descriptive study, we screened 16 IgAD patients for anthropometric and dietary data, biochemical evaluation and determination of plasma and erythrocyte levels of zinc and selenium. RESULTS: dietary intake of zinc and selenium was adequate in 75% and 86% of the patients, respectively. These results were consistent with the plasma levels (adequate levels of zinc in all patients and selenium in 50% of children, 25% of adolescents and 100% of adults). However, erythrocyte levels were low for both micronutrients (deficiency for both in 100% of children, 75% of adolescents and 25% of adults). CONCLUSION: our results highlight the elevated prevalence of erythrocyte zinc and selenium deficiency in patients with IgAD, and the need for investigation of these micronutrients in their follow-up.

Efficacy of House Dust Mite Sublingual Immunotherapy in Patients with Atopic Dermatitis: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial.

BACKGROUND: Sensitization to house dust mites (HDMs) is frequent in patients with atopic dermatitis. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the efficacy of sublingual immunotherapy (SLIT) with Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus extract in patients with atopic dermatitis sensitized to HDM. METHODS: In this randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, we enrolled 91 patients 3 years or older, with SCORing Atopic Dermatitis (SCORAD) score greater than or equal to 15 and positive skin test result and/or IgE to D pteronyssinus. Patients were stratified according to age (<12 and ≥12 years) to receive HDM SLIT or placebo for 18 months. Primary outcome was a greater than or equal to 15-point decrease in SCORAD score. Secondary outcomes were decreases in SCORAD and objective SCORAD, Eczema Area and Severity Index, visual analog scale for symptoms, and pruritus scale scores; Investigator's Global Assessment 0/1; and decrease greater than or equal to 4 points in Dermatology Life Quality Index. Background therapy was maintained. RESULTS: A total of 66 patients completed the study (35 HDM SLIT, 31 placebo). After 18 months, 74.2% and 58% of patients in the HDM SLIT group and the placebo group, respectively, showed greater than or equal to 15-point decrease in SCORAD score (relative risk, 1.28; 95% CI, 0.89-1.83). Significant SCORAD score decreases from baseline of 55.6% and 34.5% in HDM SLIT and placebo groups (mean difference, 20.4; 95% CI, 3.89-37.3), significant objective SCORAD score decreases of 56.8% and 34.9% in HDM SLIT and placebo groups (mean difference, 21.3; 95% CI, 0.66-41.81), and more patients with Investigator's Global Assessment 0/1 in the HDM SLIT group as compared with the placebo group (14 of 35 vs 5 of 31; relative risk, 2.63; 95% CI, 1.09-6.39) were observed at 18 months. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that HDM SLIT may be effective in HDM-sensitized patients as an add-on treatment for atopic dermatitis.

Outcome of SARS-CoV-2 Infection in 121 Patients with Inborn Errors of Immunity: A Cross-Sectional Study.

PURPOSE: There is still scarce data on SARS-CoV-2 infection in patients with Inborn Errors of Immunity (IEI) and many unresolved questions. We aimed to describe the clinical outcome of SARS-CoV-2 infection in Brazilian IEI patients and identify factors influencing the infection. METHODS: We did a cross-sectional, multicenter study that included patients of any age affected by IEI and SARS-CoV-2 infection. The variables studied were sex, age, type of IEI, comorbidities (number and type), treatment in use for IEI, clinical manifestations and severity of SARS-CoV-2 infection. RESULTS: 121 patients were included: 55.4% female, ages from six months to 74 yo (median age = 25.1 yo). Most patients had predominantly antibody deficiency (n = 53). The infection was mostly asymptomatic (n = 21) and mild (n = 66), and one child had multisystem inflammatory syndrome (MIS-C). We could not observe sex-related susceptibility, and there was a weak correlation between age and severity of infection. The number of comorbidities was higher in severe cases, particularly bronchiectasis and cardiopathy. There were no severe cases in hereditary angioedema patients. Six patients aged 2 to 74 years died, three of them with antibody deficiency. CONCLUSION: The outcome was mild in most patients, but the Case Fatality Ratio was higher than in the general population. However, the type of IEI was not a determining factor for severity, except for complement deficiencies linked to milder COVID-19. The severity of SARS-CoV-2 infection seems to be more related to older age, a higher number of comorbidities and type of comorbidities (bronchiectasis and cardiopathy).

The Challenges in the Follow-Up and Treatment of Brazilian Children with Hereditary Angioedema.

INTRODUCTION: Hereditary angioedema (HAE) with C1 inhibitor (C1-INH) deficiency is a rare autosomal dominant disease. Although the first symptoms can appear in childhood, the diagnosis's delay has a strong impact on the patient's quality of life. We analyzed clinical and laboratory characteristics and the drug therapy of pediatric patients with HAE in Brazil. METHODS: Medical records from 18 reference centers of HAE patients under 18 years of age were evaluated after confirmed diagnosis was performed by quantitative and/or functional C1-INH. RESULTS: A total of 95 participants (51 M:44 F; mean age: 7 years old) out of 17 centers were included; 15 asymptomatic cases were identified through family history and genetic screening. Angioedema attacks affected the extremities (73.5%), gastrointestinal tract (57%), face (50%), lips (42.5%), eyelids (23.7%), genitals (23.7%), upper airways (10%), and tongue (6.3%). Family history was present in 84% of patients, and the mean delay in the diagnosis was 3.9 years. Long-term prophylaxis (51/80) was performed with tranexamic acid (39/80) and androgens (13/80); and short-term prophylaxis (9/80) was performed with tranexamic acid (6/80) and danazol (3/80). On-demand therapy (35/80) was prescribed: icatibant in 7/35, fresh frozen plasma in 16/35, C1-INH plasma-derived in 11/35, and tranexamic acid in 12/35 patients. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first study on HAE pediatric patients in Latin America. Clinical manifestations were similar to adults. Drugs such as androgens and tranexamic acid were indicated off-label, probably due to restricted access to specific drugs. Educational programs should address pediatricians to reduce late diagnosis and tailored child therapy.

Efficacy of Probiotics in Children and Adolescents With Atopic Dermatitis: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the clinical efficacy of a mixture of probiotics (Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium) in children and adolescents with atopic dermatitis (AD) and the effects on sensitization, inflammation, and immunological tolerance. METHODS: In this double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial, we enrolled 60 patients aged between 6 months and 19 years with mild, moderate, or severe AD, according to the criteria proposed by Hanifin and Rajka. Patients were stratified to receive one gram per day of probiotics or placebo for 6 months. The primary outcome was a decrease in SCORing Atopic Dermatitis (SCORAD). Secondary outcomes were to assess the role of probiotics on the use of topical and oral medicines (standard treatment), serum IgE levels, skin prick test (SPT), and tolerogenic and inflammatory cytokines. Background therapy was maintained. RESULTS: Forty patients completed the study (24 probiotics, 16 placebo). After treatment for six months, the clinical response was significantly better in the probiotics group; the SCORAD decreased [mean difference (MD) 27.69 percentage points; 95% confidence interval (CI), 2.44-52.94], even after adjustment for co-variables (MD 32.33 percentage points; 95%CI, 5.52-59.13), especially from the third month of treatment on. The reduction of the SCORAD in probiotic group persisted for three more months after the treatment had been discontinued, even after adjustment for co-variables (MD 14.24 percentage points; 95%CI, 0.78-27.70). Patients in the probiotics group required topical immunosuppressant less frequently at 6 and 9 months. No significant changes were found for IgE levels, SPT and cytokines. CONCLUSIONS: Children and adolescents with AD presented a significant clinical response after 6 months with a mixture of probiotics (Lactobacillus rhamnosus, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus paracasei, and Bifidobacterium lactis. However, this clinical benefit is related to treatment duration. Probiotics should be considered as an adjuvant treatment for AD.

Curcuma longa L. ameliorates asthma control in children and adolescents: A randomized, double-blind, controlled trial.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Roots of Curcuma longa L. are used as medicine for millennia. They possess several pharmacological properties, including anti-inflammatory action, and can be suitable for asthma treatment. AIM OF THE STUDY: We aimed to test the hypothesis that, in children and adolescents with persistent asthma, the administration of powdered roots of C. longa for 6 months, in addition to standard treatment, compared to placebo, will result in better disease control. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We conducted a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase II clinical trial. Patients were randomly assigned to receive 30 mg/kg/day of C. longa for 6 months, or placebo. Data were collected prospectively. All patients were categorized for asthma severity and control according to GINA-2016 and underwent pulmonary function tests. RESULTS: Overall, both groups experienced amelioration of their frequency of symptoms and interference with normal activity, but no differences were found between the two treatment groups. However, patients receiving C. longa experienced less frequent nighttime awakenings, less frequent use of short-acting ß-adrenergic agonists, and better disease control after 3 and 6 months. CONCLUSION: The powdered roots of C. longa led to less frequent nighttime awakenings, less frequent use of short-acting ß-adrenergic agonists, and better disease control after 3 and 6 months, when compared to placebo.

Corrigendum: A Novel Homozygous JAK3 Mutation Leading to T-B+NK- SCID in Two Brazilian Patients.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fped.2018.00230.].

A Novel Homozygous JAK3 Mutation Leading to T-B+NK- SCID in Two Brazilian Patients.

We report a novel homozygous JAK3 mutation in two female Brazilian SCID infants from two unrelated kindreds. Patient 1 was referred at 2 months of age due to a family history of immunodeficiency and the appearance of a facial rash. The infant was screened for TRECs (T-cell receptor excision circles) and KRECs (kappa-deleting recombination excision circles) for the assessment of newly formed naïve T and B cells respectively, which showed undetectable TRECs and normal numbers of KRECs. Lymphocyte immunophenotyping by flow cytometry confirmed the screening results, revealing a T-B+NK- SCID. The patient underwent successful HSCT. Patient 2 was admitted to an intensive care unit at 8 months of age with severe pneumonia, BCGosis, and oral moniliasis; she also had a positive family history for SCID but newborn screening was not performed at birth. At 10 months of age she was diagnosed as a T-B+NK- SCID and underwent successful HSCT. JAK3 sequencing revealed the same homozygous missense mutation (c.2350G>A) in both patients. This mutation affects the last nucleotide of exon 17 and it is predicted to disrupt the donor splice site. cDNA sequencing revealed skipping of exon 17 missing in both patients, confirming the predicted effect on mRNA splicing. Skipping of exon 17 leads to an out of frame deletion of 151 nucleotides, frameshift and creation of a new stop codon 60 amino acids downstream of the mutation resulting in a truncated protein which is likely nonfunctional.

Apocynin and Nox2 regulate NF-κB by modifying thioredoxin-1 redox-state.

The reactive-oxygen-species-(ROS)-generating-enzyme Nox2 is essential for leukocyte anti-microbial activity. However its role in cellular redox homeostasis and, consequently, in modulating intracellular signaling pathways remains unclear. Herein, we show Nox2 activation favors thioredoxin-1 (TRX-1)/p40phox interaction, which leads to exclusion of TRX-1 from the nucleus. In contrast, the genetic deficiency of Nox2 or its pharmacological inhibition with apocynin (APO) results in reductive stress after lipopolysaccharide-(LPS)-cell stimulation, which causes nuclear accumulation of TRX-1 and enhanced transcription of inflammatory mediators through nuclear-factor-(NF)-κB. The NF-κB overactivation is prevented by TRX-1 oxidation using inhibitors of thioredoxin reductase-1 (TrxR-1). The Nox2/TRX-1/NF-κB intracellular signaling pathway is involved in the pathophysiology of chronic granulomatous disease (CGD) and sepsis. In fact, TrxR-1 inhibition prevents nuclear accumulation of TRX-1 and LPS-stimulated hyperproduction of tumor-necrosis-factor-(TNF)-α by monocytes and neutrophils purified from blood of CGD patients, who have deficient Nox2 activity. TrxR-1 inhibitors, either lanthanum chloride (LaCl3) or auranofin (AUR), also increase survival rates of mice undergoing cecal-ligation-and-puncture-(CLP). Therefore, our results identify a hitherto unrecognized Nox2-mediated intracellular signaling pathway that contributes to hyperinflammation in CGD and in septic patients. Additionally, we suggest that TrxR-1 inhibitors could be potential drugs to treat patients with sepsis, particularly in those with CGD.

Clinical and Genotypic Spectrum of Chronic Granulomatous Disease in 71 Latin American Patients: First Report from the LASID Registry.

AIM: We analyzed data from 71 patients with chronic granulomatous disease (CGD) with a confirmed genetic diagnosis, registered in the online Latin American Society of Primary Immunodeficiencies (LASID) database. RESULTS: Latin American CGD patients presented with recurrent and severe infections caused by several organisms. The mean age at disease onset was 23.9 months, and the mean age at CGD diagnosis was 52.7 months. Recurrent pneumonia was the most frequent clinical condition (76.8%), followed by lymphadenopathy (59.4%), granulomata (49.3%), skin infections (42%), chronic diarrhea (41.9%), otitis (29%), sepsis (23.2%), abscesses (21.7%), recurrent urinary tract infection (20.3%), and osteomyelitis (15.9%). Adverse reactions to bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccination were identified in 30% of the studied Latin American CGD cases. The genetic diagnoses of the 71 patients revealed 53 patients from 47 families with heterogeneous mutations in the CYBB gene (five novel mutations: p.W361G, p.C282X, p.W483R, p.R226X, and p.Q93X), 16 patients with the common deletion c.75_76 del.GT in exon 2 of NCF1 gene, and two patients with mutations in the CYBA gene. CONCLUSION: The majority of Latin American CGD patients carry a hemizygous mutation in the CYBB gene. They also presented a wide range of clinical manifestations most frequently bacterial and fungal infections of the respiratory tract, skin, and lymph nodes. Thirty percent of the Latin American CGD patients presented adverse reactions to BCG, indicating that this vaccine should be avoided in these patients.

Gammaglobulin for primary immunodeficiency: when should it be used? / Gamaglobulina para imunodeficiência primária: quando usar?

Antibodies are an essential component of the adaptative immune response and hold long-term memory of the immunological experiences throughout life. Antibody defects represent approximately half of thewell-known primary immunodeficiencies requiring gammaglobulin replacement therapy. On the other hand this therapy can be used for some diseases that do not belong to this group, like hyper IgM syndrome, immunodeficiency with thymoma and severe combined immunodeficiency. This therapy is a safe procedure and induces dramatic improvement in the clinical outcome of patients, reducing the risks of death and complications.

Anticorpos são componentes essenciais da resposta imunológica adaptativa e apresentam memória imunológica em longo prazo. Defeitos de anticorpos representam aproximadamente metade das imunodeficiências primárias conhecidas e requerem terapia de reposição de gamaglobulina. Por outro lado, esta modalidade terapêutica pode ser usada para algumas outras doenças que não pertencem a este grupo, como síndrome de hiper IgM, imunodeficiência com timoma e imunodeficiência combinada grave. Este tratamento é um procedimento seguro e acarreta em significativa melhora clínica dos pacientes, reduzindo os riscos de morte e complicações.

First report of the Hyper-IgM syndrome Registry of the Latin American Society for Immunodeficiencies: novel mutations, unique infections, and outcomes.

Hyper-IgM (HIGM) syndrome is a heterogeneous group of disorders characterized by normal or elevated serum IgM levels associated with absent or decreased IgG, IgA and IgE. Here we summarize data from the HIGM syndrome Registry of the Latin American Society for Immunodeficiencies (LASID). Of the 58 patients from 51 families reported to the registry with the clinical phenotype of HIGM syndrome, molecular defects were identified in 37 patients thus far. We retrospectively analyzed the clinical, immunological and molecular data from these 37 patients. CD40 ligand (CD40L) deficiency was found in 35 patients from 25 families and activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID) deficiency in 2 unrelated patients. Five previously unreported mutations were identified in the CD40L gene (CD40LG). Respiratory tract infections, mainly pneumonia, were the most frequent clinical manifestation. Previously undescribed fungal and opportunistic infections were observed in CD40L-deficient patients but not in the two patients with AID deficiency. These include the first cases of pneumonia caused by Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Serratia marcescens or Aspergillus sp. and diarrhea caused by Microsporidium sp. or Isospora belli. Except for four CD40L-deficient patients who died from complications of presumptive central nervous system infections or sepsis, all patients reported in this study are alive. Four CD40L-deficient patients underwent successful bone marrow transplantation. This report characterizes the clinical and genetic spectrum of HIGM syndrome in Latin America and expands the understanding of the genotype and phenotype of this syndrome in tropical areas.

A family history of serious complications due to BCG vaccination is a tool for the early diagnosis of severe primary immunodeficiency.

Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID) is one of the most severe forms of primary immunodeficiency (PID). Complications of BCG vaccination, especially disseminated infection and its most severe forms, are known to occur in immunodeficient patients, particularly in SCID. A carefully taken family history before BCG injection as well as delaying vaccination if PID is suspected could be a simple and effective method to avoid inappropriate vaccination of an immunodeficient child in some cases until the prospect of newborn screening for SCID has been fully developed. We describe a patient with a very early diagnosis of SCID, which was suspected on the basis of the previous death of two siblings younger than one year due to severe complications secondary to the BCG vaccine. We suggest that a family history of severe or fatal reactions to BCG should be included as a warning sign for an early diagnosis of SCID.

Infecções de repetição: o que é importante para o pediatra / Recurrent infections: what is important to pediatricians

OBJETIVO: Apresentar uma revisão atualizada sobre infecções de repetição em crianças, abordando importantes aspectos para o pediatra relacionados a infecções em crianças saudáveis e em crianças com imunodeficiências primárias. FONTES DE DADOS: Artigos relacionados ao tema foram coletados dos bancos de dados Medline e Lilacs no período entre 1980 e 2008, tendo sido selecionados artigos de meta-análise, revisão e estudos clínicos realizados em seres humanos, cuja metodologia e discussão estavam bem estruturadas. Também foram incluídos livros-texto nacionais e internacionais pertinentes ao tema. SÍNTESE DOS DADOS: Infecções de repetição são frequentes na clínica pediátrica. Aproximadamente 50 por cento dessas crianças são saudáveis e 10 por cento podem ser imunodeficientes. A criança saudável apresenta crescimento e desenvolvimento normais e se encontra bem entre os episódios infecciosos. As infecções, na maioria das vezes, não têm curso prolongado ou complicado e ocorrem devido ao aumento da exposição a agentes infecciosos do meio ambiente nos primeiros anos de vida. As imunodeficiências primárias geralmente se manifestam como infecções de repetição por microorganismos específicos ou por germes de baixa virulência. Na maioria das vezes, os quadros infecciosos apresentam evolução prolongada, resposta inadequada à antibioticoterapia e elevados riscos de complicações. CONCLUSÕES: O diagnóstico precoce das imunodeficiências primárias é essencial para que medidas terapêuticas sejam rapidamente instituídas, reduzindo os riscos de ocorrência de óbito e complicações.

OBJECTIVE: To present an up-to-date review about recurrent infections in children, addressing important aspects for pediatricians related to infections in healthy children and in children with primary immunodeficiencies. DATA SOURCE: Articles related to the subject were collected from Medline and Lilacs databases between 1980 and 2008, selecting articles of meta-analysis, review and clinical trials in humans, with well-structured methodology and discussion. National and international textbooks relevant to the subject were also included. DATA SYNTHESIS: Recurrent infections are frequent in pediatric clinics. Approximately 50 percent of these children are healthy and 10 percent may be immunodeficient. The healthy child presents normal growth and development and is well between infections. Most times, infections do not have prolonged or complicated evolution, and they occur due to exposure to infectious agents from the environment during the first years of life. Primary immunodeficiencies usually manifest as recurrent infections by specific microorganisms or by low virulence germs. Most of the times, these infections are prolonged, they present inadequate response to antibiotics and a high risk of complications. CONCLUSIONS: An early diagnosis of primary immunodeficiencies is essential so that therapeutic measures may be taken quickly, reducing risks of death and complications.