"The Early Years are Like a Foundation for the Future" Perspectives, Facilitators, and Challenges of Anganwadi Workers in Supporting Early Child Development Interventions in Hyderabad, India: Qualitative Findings from a Scalable Program Incorporating Early Child Development Interventions.

BACKGROUND: Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) scheme, a large public health program, addresses the needs of young children with Anganwadi Workers (AWWs) as frontline agents of delivery. A scalable program incorporating early child development interventions (ASPIRE) has been developed to complement the program and address some of its gaps. OBJECTIVES: This paper describes formative work done with AWWs, as part of ASPIRE to assess their understanding of early childhood development (ECD) and acceptability of a novel ECD intervention using digital technology. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Six focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted with 31 AWWs, using a semi-structured guide. RESULTS: Framework analysis of their responses from FGDs led to the identification of three themes: (1) time use, (2) understanding of ECD, and (3) delivering messages using videos. The findings suggest that AWWs tight schedules often leave them feeling overburdened with work. They are aware of factors that can aid as well as hinder child growth and development, but their understanding of play is limited to games played by older children. They expressed acceptability in using a video intervention, specifying features that would increase relevance for families. CONCLUSION: Integration of novel ECD interventions delivered by frontline workers needs to take into account their existing work schedules and associated challenges. Training on ECD interventions will need to broaden AWWs understanding of the critical foundational experiences which responsive caregiving and early child stimulation can provide.

Locked down-locked in: experiences of families of young children with autism spectrum disorders in Delhi, India.

Introduction: The onset of the COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent lockdowns in March 2020 disrupted the lives of families across India. The lockdown related restrictions brought forth a multitude of challenges including loss of employment, social isolation, school closures and financial burdens. Specifically, it also resulted in the restriction of health-care services for children with neurodevelopmental disabilities. Methods: This qualitative study was conducted as a part of a larger trial in India to understand the experiences of families of young children with autism during the pandemic. In-depth interviews were carried out with 14 caregivers residing in New Delhi, India. Results: Our findings identified pandemic and lockdown's universal impacts on family life and financial stability stemming from job loss, business closure, and salary deductions, affecting quality of life of families. Furthermore, COVID-19 pandemic's impact on autistic children was evident through limited access to essential services and financial challenges related service interruptions even after resumption of services. The lockdown's novelty also affected children's behavior, with both challenging behavioral changes and positive impacts. Primary caregivers, predominantly mothers, assumed additional responsibilities in household tasks, schooling, and therapy administration. While some these experiences were universally experienced, a few of these improved outcomes for autistic children. Despite challenges, parents expressed gratitude for their family's safety and well-being during the difficult time. Discussions: These findings inform service provision for vulnerable families and offer implications for designing interventions such as credit schemes for families, guidance and resources for establishing and maintaining routines of children with autism, adopting flexible and adaptable approaches to service delivery, and special provisions for children with autism to be able to maintain their routines outside of home. Furthermore, the study highlights the need for comprehensive support, including educational resources and stress management counselling to empower parents in supporting essential care and routines for their children during such unprecedented times.

A randomised controlled trial of clinical and cost-effectiveness of the PASS Plus intervention for young children with autism spectrum disorder in New Delhi, India: study protocol for the COMPASS trial.

BACKGROUND: Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disability affecting at least 5 million children in South Asia. Majority of these children are without access to evidence-based care. The UK Pre-school Autism Communication Therapy (PACT) is the only intervention to have shown sustained impact on autism symptoms. It was systematically adapted for non-specialist community delivery in South Asia, as the 'Parent-mediated Autism Social Communication Intervention for non-Specialists (PASS)' and extended 'PASS Plus' interventions. RCTs of both showed feasibility, acceptability and positive effect on parent and child dyadic outcomes. METHODS: The Communication-centred Parent-mediated treatment for Autism Spectrum Disorder in South Asia (COMPASS) trial is now a scale-up two-centre, two-arm single (rater) blinded random allocation parallel group study of the PASS Plus intervention in addition to treatment as usual (TAU) compared to TAU alone, plus health economic evaluation embedded in the India health system. Two hundred forty children (approximately 120 intervention/120 TAU) with ASD aged 2-9 years will be recruited from two tertiary care government hospitals in New Delhi, India. Accredited Social Health Activists will be one of the intervention delivery agents. Families will undertake up to 12 communication sessions over 8 months and will be offered the Plus modules which address coexisting problems. The trial's primary endpoint is at 9 months from randomisation, with follow-up at 15 months. The primary outcome is autism symptom severity; secondary outcomes include parent-child communication, child adaptation, quality of life and parental wellbeing. Primary analysis will follow intention-to-treat principles using linear mixed model regressions with group allocation and repeated measures as random effects. The cost-effectiveness analysis will use a societal perspective over the 15-month period of intervention and follow-up. DISCUSSION: If clinically and cost-effective, this programme will fill an important gap of scalable interventions delivered by non-specialist health workers within the current care pathways for autistic children and their families in low-resource contexts. The programme has been implemented through the COVID-19 pandemic when restrictions were in place; intervention delivery and evaluation processes have been adapted to address these conditions. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ISRCTN; ISRCTN21454676 ; Registered 22 June 2018.

Maternal time investment in caregiving activities to promote early childhood development: evidence from rural India.

Introduction: Intervention strategies that seek to improve early childhood development outcomes are often targeted at the primary caregivers of children, usually mothers. The interventions require mothers to assimilate new information and then act upon it by allocating sufficient physical resources and time to adopt and perform development promoting behaviours. However, women face many competing demands on their resources and time, returning to familiar habits and behaviours. In this study, we explore mothers' allocation of time for caregiving activities for children under the age of 2, nested within a cluster randomised controlled trial of a nutrition and care for development intervention in rural Haryana, India. Methods: We collected quantitative maternal time use data at two time points in rural Haryana, India, using a bespoke survey instrument. Data were collected from 704 mothers when their child was 12 months old, and 603 mothers when their child was 18 months old. We tested for significant differences in time spent by mothers on different activities when children are 12 months of age vs. 18 months of age between arms as well as over time, using linear regression. As these data were collected within a randomised controlled trial, we adjusted for clusters using random effects when testing for significant differences between the two time points. Results: At both time points, no statistically significant difference in maternal time use was found between arms. On average, mothers spent most of their waking time on household chores (over 6 h and 30 min) at both time points. When children were aged 12 months, approximately three and a half hours were spent on childcare activities for children under the age of 2 years. When children were 18 months old, mothers spent more time on income generating activities (30 min) than when the children were 12 years old, and on leisure (approximately 4 h and 30 min). When children were 18 months old, less time was spent on feeding/breastfeeding children (30 min less) and playing with children (15 min). However, mothers spent more time talking or reading to children at 18 months than at 12 months. Conclusion: We find that within a relatively short period of time in early childhood, maternal (or caregiver) time use can change, with time allocation being diverted away from childcare activities to others. This suggests that changing maternal time allocation in resource poor households may be quite challenging, and not allow the uptake of new and/or optimal behaviours.

Can home visits for early child development be implemented with sufficient coverage and quality at scale? Evidence from the SPRING program in India and Pakistan.

Introduction: There is limited evidence from low and middle-income settings on the effectiveness of early child development interventions at scale. To bridge this knowledge-gap we implemented the SPRING home visiting program where we tested integrating home visits into an existing government program (Pakistan) and employing a new cadre of intervention workers (India). We report the findings of the process evaluation which aimed to understand implementation. Methods and materials: We collected qualitative data on acceptability and barriers and facilitators for change through 24 in-depth interviews with mothers; eight focus group discussions with mothers, 12 with grandmothers, and 12 with fathers; and 12 focus group discussions and five in-depth interviews with the community-based agents and their supervisors. Results: Implementation was sub-optimal in both settings. In Pakistan issues were low field-supervision coverage and poor visit quality related to issues scheduling supervision, a lack of skill development, high workloads and competing priorities. In India, issues were low visit coverage - in part due to employing new workers and an empowerment approach to visit scheduling. Coaching caregivers to improve their skills was sub-optimal in both sites, and is likely to have contributed to caregiver perceptions that the intervention content was not new and was focused on play activities rather than interaction and responsivity - which was a focus of the coaching. In both sites caregiver time pressures was a key reason for low uptake among families who received visits. Discussion: Programs need feasible strategies to maximize quality, coverage and supervision including identifying and managing problems through monitoring and feedback loops. Where existing community-based agents are overstretched and system strengthening is unlikely, alternative implementation strategies should be considered such as group delivery. Core intervention ingredients such as coaching should be prioritized and supported during training and implementation. Given that time and resource constraints were a key barrier for families a greater focus on communication, responsivity and interaction during daily activities could have improved feasibility.

Effect of the SPRING home visits intervention on early child development and growth in rural India and Pakistan: parallel cluster randomised controlled trials.

Introduction: Almost 250 million children fail to achieve their full growth or developmental potential, trapping them in a cycle of continuing disadvantage. Strong evidence exists that parent-focussed face to face interventions can improve developmental outcomes; the challenge is delivering these on a wide scale. SPRING (Sustainable Programme Incorporating Nutrition and Games) aimed to address this by developing a feasible affordable programme of monthly home visits by community-based workers (CWs) and testing two different delivery models at scale in a programmatic setting. In Pakistan, SPRING was embedded into existing monthly home visits of Lady Health Workers (LHWs). In India, it was delivered by a civil society/non-governmental organisation (CSO/NGO) that trained a new cadre of CWs. Methods: The SPRING interventions were evaluated through parallel cluster randomised trials. In Pakistan, clusters were 20 Union Councils (UCs), and in India, the catchment areas of 24 health sub-centres. Trial participants were mother-baby dyads of live born babies recruited through surveillance systems of 2 monthly home visits. Primary outcomes were BSID-III composite scores for psychomotor, cognitive and language development plus height for age z-score (HAZ), assessed at 18 months of age. Analyses were by intention to treat. Results: 1,443 children in India were assessed at age 18 months and 1,016 in Pakistan. There was no impact in either setting on ECD outcomes or growth. The percentage of children in the SPRING intervention group who were receiving diets at 12 months of age that met the WHO minimum acceptable criteria was 35% higher in India (95% CI: 4-75%, p = 0.023) and 45% higher in Pakistan (95% CI: 15-83%, p = 0.002) compared to children in the control groups. Discussion: The lack of impact is explained by shortcomings in implementation factors. Important lessons were learnt. Integrating additional tasks into the already overloaded workload of CWs is unlikely to be successful without additional resources and re-organisation of their goals to include the new tasks. The NGO model is the most likely for scale-up as few countries have established infrastructures like the LHW programme. It will require careful attention to the establishment of strong administrative and management systems to support its implementation.

Development of a cost of illness inventory questionnaire for children with autism spectrum disorder in South Asia.

BACKGROUND: The economic burden of autism is substantial and includes a range of costs, including healthcare, education, productivity losses, informal care and respite care, among others. In India, approximately, 2 million children aged 2-9 years have autism. Given the likely substantial burden of illness and the need to identify effective and cost-effective interventions, this research aimed to produce a comprehensive cost of illness inventory (COII) suitable for children with autism in South Asia (India) to support future research. METHODS: A structured and iterative design process was followed to create the COII, including literature reviews, interviews with caregivers, pilot testing and translation. Across the development of the COII, thirty-two families were involved in the design and piloting of the tool. The COII was forward translated (from English to Hindi) and back translated. Each stage of the process of development of the COII resulted in the further refinement of the tool. RESULTS: Domains covered in the final COII include education, childcare, relocation, healthcare contacts (outpatient, inpatient, medical emergencies, investigations and medication), religious retreats and rituals, specialist equipment, workshops and training, special diet, support and care, certification, occupational adjustments and government rebates/schemes. Administration and completion of the COII determined it to be feasible to complete in 35 minutes by qualified and trained researchers. The final COII is hosted by REDCap Cloud and is a bilingual instrument (Hindi and English). CONCLUSIONS: The COII was developed using experiences gathered from an iterative process in a metropolitan area within the context of one low- and middle-income country (LMIC) setting, India. Compared to COII tools used for children with autism in high-income country settings, additional domains were required, such as complimentary medication (e.g. religious retreats and homeopathy). The COII will allow future research to quantify the cost of illness of autism in India from a broad perspective and will support relevant economic evaluations. Understanding the process of developing the questionnaire will help researchers working in LMICs needing to adapt the current COII or developing similar questionnaires.

The effect of cumulative early life adversities, and their differential mediation through hair cortisol levels, on childhood growth and cognition: Three-year follow-up of a birth cohort in rural India.

Background: Early adversities negatively impact children's growth and development, putatively mediated by chronic physiological stress resulting from these adverse experiences. We aimed to estimate the associations between prospectively measured cumulative early adversities with growth and cognition outcomes in rural Indian preschool children and to explore if hair cortisol concentration (HCC), a measure of chronic physiological stress, mediated the above association. Methods: Participants were recruited from the SPRING cRCT in rural Haryana, India. Adversities experienced through pregnancy and the first year of life were measured in 1304 children at 12-months. HCC was measured at 12-months in 845 of them. Outcome measures were height-for-age-z-score (HAZ), weight-for-age-z-score (WAZ) and cognition, measured in 1124 children followed up at 3-years. Cognition was measured using a validated tablet-based gamified tool named DEEP. Results: Cumulative adversities at 12-months were inversely associated with all outcomes measures at 3-years. Each unit increase in adversity score led to a decrease of 0·08 units [95% confidence interval (CI):-0·11,-0·06] in DEEP-z-score; 0·12 units [-0·14,-0·09] in HAZ and 0·11 units [-0·13,-0·09] in WAZ. 12-month HCC was inversely associated with DEEP-z-score (-0·09 [-0·16,-0·01]) and HAZ (-0·12 [-0·20,-0·04]), but the association with WAZ was not significant (p = 0·142). HCC marginally mediated the association between cumulative adversities and HAZ (proportion mediated = 0·06, p = 0·014). No evidence of mediation was found for the cognition outcome. Conclusions: Cumulative early adversities and HCC measured at 12-months have persistent negative effects on child growth and cognition at 3-years. The association between adversities and these two child outcomes were differentially mediated by HCC, with no evidence of mediation observed for the cognitive outcome. Future studies should focus on other stress biomarkers, and alternate pathways such as the immune, inflammation and cellular ageing pathways, to unpack key mechanisms underlying the established relationship between early adversities and poor child outcomes.

From engagement to competency: The pathway to making disability naïve frontline workers competent in the delivery of an evidence-based autism intervention in New Delhi, India.

Background: As countries like India improve access to maternal and infant care, the health systems need to develop services that enable all children to thrive. A key demographic which needs to be supported are children with disabilities, such as autism. With an estimated prevalence of one percent, there are over five million young children who need services to support their needs. However, the paucity of specialist care makes access to interventions difficult. In this context a public health research not-for-profit is evaluating the effectiveness of the task-sharing approach to support the delivery of an evidenced social communication intervention for young children with autism. This paper describes the process of engaging and training the non-specialist frontline Accredited Social Health Activists (ASHAs), who are embedded within the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare under the Delhi State Health Mission, to deliver a complex intervention for autism to inform the future scalability of services for neurodevelopmental disorders. Methods: The present study describes the process which included (i) engagement meetings, (ii) recruitment, (iii) training, (iv) internship, and (v) competency evaluation. The shortlisted ASHAs received a 7-day classroom training followed by an internship period with practice cases. Finally, competency assessments, comprising of a test of knowledge and skills through role-plays, was administered. Results: Twenty three Primary Urban Health Centers across seven districts of Delhi were approached and 408 ASHAs were engaged in initial meetings. Telephonic screening with 127 ASHAs resulted in 72 ASHAs being selected for in-person interviews. Of the 45 ASHAs who attended, 33 were shortlisted for training and 18 completed it. Fifteen ASHAs entered the internship of which 7 ASHAs achieved competency. Discussion and conclusion: There was significant attrition along the pathway to having a competent non-specialist worker deliver a complex autism intervention. The lessons learnt from this process can inform the possibility of developing a cadre of disability specific frontline health workers who can deliver evidence-based interventions for neurodevelopmental disorders under supervision.

The association of a novel digital tool for assessment of early childhood cognitive development, 'DEvelopmental assessment on an E-Platform (DEEP)', with growth in rural India: A proof of concept study.

BACKGROUND: There is an urgent need to fill the gap of scalable cognitive assessment tools for preschool children to enable identification of children at-risk of sub-optimal development and to support their timely referral into interventions. We present the associations between growth in early childhood, a well-established marker of cognitive development, and scores on a novel digital cognitive assessment tool called DEvelopmental Assessment on an E-Platform (DEEP) on a sample of 3-year old pre-schoolers from a rural region in north India. METHODS: Between February 2018 and March 2019, 1359 children from the Sustainable Programme Incorporating Nutrition and Games (SPRING) programme were followed up at 3-years age and data on DEEP, anthropometry and a clinical developmental assessment, the Bayley's Scale of Infant and Toddler Development, 3rd edition (BSID-III) was collected. DEEP data from 200 children was used to train a machine learning algorithm to predict their score on the cognitive domain of BSID-III. The DEEP score of the remaining 1159 children was then predicted using this algorithm to examine the cross-sectional and prospective association of growth with the DEEP score. FINDINGS: The magnitude of the concurrent positive association between height-for-age and cognitive z-scores in 3-year olds was similar when cognition was measured by BSID-III (0.20 standard deviations increase for every unit change in specifically age-adjusted height (HAZ), 95% CI = 0.06-0.35) and DEEP (0.26 CI, 0.11-0.41). A similar positive prospective relationship was found between growth at 18 (0.21 CI, 0.17-0.26) and 12-months (0.18 CI, 0.13-0.23) and DEEP score measured at 3-years. Additionally, the relationship between growth and cognitive development was found to be dependant on socioeconomic status (SES). INTERPRETATION: In this study, we suggest the utility of DEEP, a scalable, digital cognitive assessment tool, to measure cognition in preschool children. Further validation in different and larger datasets is necessary to confirm our findings. FUNDING: The SPRING Programme was funded through a Wellcome Trust programme grant and the follow-up study by the Corporate Social Responsibility initiative grant from Madura Microfinance Ltd.

Using the Mothers Object Relations Scale for early childhood development research in rural India: Findings from the Early Life Stress Sub-study of the SPRING Cluster Randomised Controlled Trial (SPRING-ELS).

Background: The World Health Organization and others promote responsive caregiving to support all children to thrive, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. The 14-item Mother's Object Relations Scales - Short Form (MORS-SF) may be of use in research and public health programmes because of its basis in attachment theory and ability to capture parental feelings towards their child. Methods: We culturally adapted the MORS-SF for use with mothers in the SPRING home visits trial when their infants were 12 months old. The same dyads were assessed using the HOME inventory concurrently and Bayley Scales of Infant Development III (BSID-III) at 18 months of age. Mixed effects linear regression was used to examine associations between MORS-SF (explanatory variable) and HOME-IT, and the cognitive, language and motor domains of BSID-III (outcome variables). Results: 1273 dyads completed all assessments. For the motor and language BSID-III scales and for HOME-IT there were strong and positive associations with the MORS-SF warmth sub-scale, and strong and negative associations with the invasion sub-scale. Important but less strong associations were seen with the BSID-III cognitive scale. Evidence of interaction suggested that both are individually important for child development. Conclusions: This is the first time MORS-SF has been used in India where optimising responsive caregiving is of importance in supporting all children to reach their potential. It is also the first time that the tool has been used in relation to child development. MORS-SF could be a valuable addition to evaluation in early childhood development.

Observed feeding behaviours and effects on child weight and length at 12 months of age: Findings from the SPRING cluster-randomized controlled trial in rural India.

BACKGROUND: Child undernutrition results in poor growth in early childhood, undermines optimal development and increases the risk of mortality. Responsive feeding has been promoted as a key intervention for improving nutritional status, however measurement of this remains difficult and has rarely considered child behaviour. We therefore developed a new observed feeding tool to assess both child and caregiver behaviours, as well as their interaction during feeding, and investigate the effect of these on children anthropometric measures at 12-months of age in rural India. METHODS: Our study was nested within the SPRING cluster-randomized controlled trial in Rewari, North India. Outcomes were children length-for-age (LAZ), weight-for-length (WLZ) and weight-for-age (WAZ) Z scores at 12 months of age, based on the WHO Child Growth standards. Trained non-specialists live-coded feeding episodes using the newly designed tool. Scores were then created using principal components analysis representing child behaviour, caregiver behaviour and caregiver-child interaction. Mixed effects linear regression was used to assess associations between feeding behaviours and anthropometric outcomes. RESULTS: 857 children had a meal observation and were included. Anthropometric status was poor (mean length-for-age -1.59 (SD = 1.11); mean weight-for-length -0.58 (0.95); mean weight-for-age -1.22 (1.04)). There were positive linear differences in weight-for-length per unit increase in caregiver responsive behaviours score (adjusted ß-coeff = 0.006, 95%CI = (0.001, 0.011), p = 0.01), in length-for-age and weight-for-age per unit increase in child responsive behaviours score (respectively adjusted ß-coeff = 0.004, 95%CI = (0.001, 0.007), p = 0.02, and adjusted ß-coeff = 0.003, 95%CI = (0.00001, 0.006), p = 0.049), and in both weight-for-length and weight-for-age per unit increase in caregiver-child interaction score (respectively adjusted ß-coeff = 0.007, 95%CI = (0.003, 0.012), p = 0.001, and adjusted ß-coeff = 0.005, 95%CI = (0.001, 0.011), p = 0.01). No association was seen between child behaviours and weight-for-length, caregiver behaviours and length and caregiver-child interaction and length. CONCLUSIONS: We found that trained non-specialists could assess feeding episodes using a newly designed checklist. Further, child and caregiver behaviours were associated with weight and length at only 12 months of age, a reminder of the importance of interventions to improve responsive feeding quality as we strive towards achievement of the sustainable development goals.

The contribution of childhood adversity to cortisol measures of early life stress amongst infants in rural India: Findings from the early life stress sub-study of the SPRING cluster randomised controlled trial (SPRING-ELS).

BACKGROUND: The majority of the world's children live in low- and middle-income countries and face multiple obstacles to optimal wellbeing. The mechanisms by which adversities - social, cultural, psychological, environmental, economic - get 'under the skin' in the early days of life and become biologically embedded remain an important line of enquiry. We therefore examined the contribution of childhood adversity through pregnancy and the first year of life to hair and salivary cortisol measures of early life stress in the India SPRING home visits cluster RCT which aims to improve early childhood development. METHODS: We assessed 22 adversities across four domains: socioeconomic, maternal stress, family-child relationship, and child and summed them to make a cumulative adversity score & quintiles, and four subscale scores. We cut 3 cm of hair from the posterior vertex and took three saliva samples from morning till late afternoon on each of two days (total six samples). We analysed both for cortisol concentration using ELISA techniques. We used multiple linear regression techniques to assess the relationship between cumulative adversity and log hair cortisol concentration and saliva diurnal slope and area under the curve. RESULTS: We assessed 712 children for hair, and 752 children for saliva cortisol at 12 months of age. We found a strong positive relationship between adversity and hair cortisol; each additional adversity factor was associated with hair cortisol increases of 6.1% (95% CI 2.8, 9.4, p < 0.001) and the increase from adversity quintile one to five was 59.4%. Socioeconomic, relationship and child scales were independent predictors of hair cortisol (socioeconomic 6.4% (95% CI -0.4, 13.6); relationship 11.8% (95% CI 1.4, 23.2); child 7.9% (95% CI -0.5, 16.9). We did not find any association between any measures of adversity and either of the saliva cortisol outcomes. DISCUSSION: This is the largest study of hair cortisol in young children, and the first in a low- and middle-income country setting. Whilst the short-term diurnal measures of cortisol did not appear to be linked with adversity, chronic exposure over several months appears to be strongly associated with cumulative adversity. These findings should spur further work to understand the specific ways in which adversity becomes biologically embedded, and how this can be tackled. They also lend support to ongoing action to tackle childhood adversity in communities around the world.

Impact of adversity on early childhood growth & development in rural India: Findings from the early life stress sub-study of the SPRING cluster randomised controlled trial (SPRING-ELS).

INTRODUCTION: Early childhood development is key to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals and can be negatively influenced by many different adversities including violence in the home, neglect, abuse and parental ill-health. We set out to quantify the extent to which multiple adversities are associated with impaired early childhood growth & development. METHODS: This was a substudy of the SPRING cluster randomised controlled trial covering the whole population of 120 villages of rural India. We assessed all children born from 18 June 2015 for adversities in the first year of life and summed these to make a total cumulative adversity score, and four subscale scores. We assessed the association of each of these with weight-for-age z-score, length-for-age z-score, and the motor, cognitive and language developmental scales of the Bayley Scales of Infant Development III assessed at 18 months. RESULTS: We enrolled 1726 children soon after birth and assessed 1273 of these at both 12 and 18 months of age. There were consistent and strongly negative relationships between all measures of childhood adversity and all five child growth & development outcome measures at 18 months of age. For the Bayley motor scale, each additional adversity was associated with a 1.1 point decrease (95%CI -1.3, -0.9); for the cognitive scales this was 0.8 points (95%CI -1.0, -0.6); and for language this was 1.4 points (95%CI -1.9, -1.1). Similarly for growth, each additional adversity was associated with a -0.09 change in weight-for-age z-score (-0.11, -0.06) and -0.12 change in height-for-age z-score (-0.14, -0.09). DISCUSSION: Our results are the first from a large population-based study in a low/middle-income country to show that each increase in adversity in multiple domains increases risk to child growth and development at a very early age. There is an urgent need to act to improve these outcomes for young children in LMICs and these findings suggest that Early Childhood programmes should prioritise early childhood adversity because of its impact on developmental inequities from the very start.

Mothers explanatory models of infant stress & adversity in rural Haryana, India: qualitative findings from the Early Life Stress sub-study of the SPRING cluster-randomised controlled trial (SPRING-ELS).

Background   Exposure to a range of biological and psychosocial adversities in early childhood is of negative consequence through the lifecourse. This is particularly important for children in low- and middle-income countries where at least 250 million children are at high-risk of not meeting their developmental potential. Minimal evidence describes mothers' views of this. We therefore elicited an explanatory model exploring mothers' perceptions of infant stress and adversity in rural Haryana, India. Methods We did eight focus-group discussions to explore the perspectives of mothers in the general population of this rural area of India using a discussion guide based on Kleinman's explanatory model. Data were coded by two analysts and arranged in themes for presentation. Illustrative quotations were used for presentation of findings. Results All mothers identified several causes of adversity and stress for children, including poverty, neglect and violence. They described the consequences of this for emotions, behaviour and school readiness of children, and that some of the consequences were reversible with appropriate management. Mothers described younger children as being unable to be affected by adversity, because they were "too young to understand". Conclusions Mothers agreed with much of the current biomedical model for early childhood development, however the predominant view was that young infants were "too young to understand" is an important deviation. These findings are of importance in designing behaviour change strategies for this crucial period of early childhood which is rising up the global policy agenda with the aim of giving every child the opportunity to thrive.

Factors influencing women's preference for health facility deliveries in Jharkhand state, India: a cross sectional analysis.

BACKGROUND: Expanding institutional deliveries is a policy priority to achieve MDG5. India adopted a policy to encourage facility births through a conditional cash incentive scheme, yet 28% of deliveries still occur at home. In this context, it is important to understand the care experience of women who have delivered at home, and also at health facilities, analyzing any differences, so that services can be improved to promote facility births. This study aims to understand women's experience of delivery care during home and facility births, and the factors that influence women's decisions regarding their next place of delivery. METHOD: A community-based cross-sectional survey was undertaken in a district of Jharkhand state in India. Interviews with 500 recently delivered women (210 delivered at facility and 290 delivered at home) included socio-demographic characteristics, experience of their recent delivery, and preference of future delivery site. Data analysis included frequencies, binary and multiple logistic regressions. RESULTS: There is no major difference in the experience of care between home and facility births, the only difference in care being with regard to pain relief through massage, injection and low cost of delivery for those having home births. 75% women wanted to deliver their next child at a facility, main reasons being availability of medicine (29.4%) and perceived health benefits for mother and baby (15%). Women with higher education (AOR = 1.67, 95% CI = 1.04-3.07), women who were above 25 years (AOR = 2.14, 95% CI = 1.26-3.64), who currently delivered at facility (AOR = 5.19, 95% CI = 2.97-9.08) and had health problem post-delivery (AOR = 1.85, 95% CI = 1.08-3.19) were significant predictors of future facility-based delivery. CONCLUSION: The predictors for facility deliveries include, availability of medicines and supplies, potential health benefits for the mother and newborn and the perception of good care from the providers. There is a growing preference for facility delivery particularly among women with higher age group, education, income and those who had antennal checkup. In order to uptake facility births, the quality improvement initiatives should regularly assess and address women's experiences of care.

Fostering maternal and newborn care in India the Yashoda way: does this improve maternal and newborn care practices during institutional delivery?

BACKGROUND: The Yashoda program, named after a legendary foster-mother in Indian mythology, under the Norway-India Partnership Initiative was launched as a pilot program in 2008 to improve the quality of maternal and neonatal care at facilities in select districts of India. Yashodas were placed mainly at district hospitals, which are high delivery load facilities, to provide support and care to mothers and newborns during their stay at these facilities. This study presents the results from the evaluation of this intervention in two states in India. METHODS: Data collection methods included in-depth interviews with healthcare providers and mothers and a survey of mothers who had recently delivered within a quasi-experimental design. Fifty IDIs were done and 1,652 mothers who had delivered in the past three months were surveyed during 2010 and 2011. RESULTS: A significantly higher proportion of mothers at facilities with Yashodas (55 percent to 97 percent) received counseling on immunization, breastfeeding, family planning, danger signs, and nutrition compared to those in control districts (34 percent to 66 percent). Mothers in intervention facilities were four to five times more likely to receive postnatal checks than mothers in control facilities. Among mothers who underwent cesarean sections, initiation of breastfeeding within five hours was 50 percent higher in intervention facilities. Mothers and families also reported increased support, care and respect at intervention facilities. CONCLUSION: Yashoda as mothers' aide thus seems to be an effective intervention to improve quality of maternal and newborn care in India. Scaling up of this intervention is recommended in district hospitals and other facilities with high volume of deliveries.