Real-life evidence about the use of intravenous brivaracetam in urgent seizures: The BRIV-IV study.

PURPOSE: Urgent seizures are a medical emergency for which new therapies are still needed. This study evaluated the use of intravenous brivaracetam (IV-BRV) in an emergency setting in clinical practice. METHODS: BRIV-IV was a retrospective, multicenter, observational study. It included patients ≥18 years old who were diagnosed with urgent seizures (including status epilepticus (SE), acute repetitive seizures, and high-risk seizures) and who were treated with IV-BRV according to clinical practice in 14 hospital centers. Information was extracted from clinical charts and included in an electronic database. Primary effectiveness endpoints included the rate of IV-BRV responder patients, the rate of patients with a sustained response without seizure relapse in 12 h, and the time between IV-BRV administration and clinical response. Primary safety endpoints were comprised the percentage of patients with adverse events and those with adverse events leading to discontinuation. RESULTS: A total of 156 patients were included in this study. The mean age was 57.7 ± 21.5 years old with a prior diagnosis of epilepsy for 57.1% of patients. The most frequent etiologies were brain tumor-related (18.1%) and vascular (11.2%) epilepsy. SE was diagnosed in 55.3% of patients. The median time from urgent seizure onset to IV treatment administration was 60.0 min (range: 15.0-360.0), and the median time from IV treatment to IV-BRV was 90.0 min (range: 30.0-2400.0). Regarding dosage, the mean bolus infusion was 163.0 ± 73.0 mg and the mean daily dosage was 195.0 ± 87.0 mg. A total of 77.6% of patients responded to IV-BRV (66.3% with SE vs. 91% other urgent seizures) with a median response time of 30.0 min (range: 10.0-60.0). A sustained response was achieved in 62.8% of patients. However, adverse events were reported in 14.7%, which were predominantly somnolence and fatigue, with 4.5% leading to discontinuation. Eighty-six percent of patients were discharged with oral brivaracetam. CONCLUSION: IV-BRV in emergency settings was effective, and tolerability was good for most patients. However, a larger series is needed to confirm the outcomes.

MONOZEB: Long-term observational study of eslicarbazepine acetate monotherapy.

AIM: The aim of the study was to evaluate the effectiveness and tolerability of eslicarbazepine acetate (ESL) when used as monotherapy for 1 year or more in routine clinical use in patients with focal seizures in epilepsy clinics in Spain. METHODS: This is a retrospective, observational, noninterventional study. Eligible patients were aged ≥18 years, had focal seizures, and started on ESL ≥1 year before database closure. Primary endpoint was the following: proportion seizure-free for ≥6 months at 1 and 2 years. Secondary endpoints included retention on ESL monotherapy at 1 and 2 years, seizure frequency change, seizure worsening, and side effects. Other analyses included seizure freedom from baseline to 1 and 2 years and outcomes in special populations. RESULTS: Four hundred thirty-five patients were included (127 on first-line monotherapy and 308 converting to ESL monotherapy): median daily dose was 800 mg at all time points; 63.2% were seizure-free at 1 year, 65.1% at 2 years, and 50.3% for the entire follow-up. Mean duration of ESL monotherapy was 66.7 months; retention was 88.0% at 1 year and 81.9% at 2 years. Mean reduction in seizure frequency was 75.5% at last visit. Over the entire follow-up, seizure worsening was seen in 22 patients (5.1%), side effects in 28.0%, considered severe in 1.8%, and leading to discontinuation in 5.7%. Dizziness, hyponatremia (sodium <135 mEq/l), and somnolence were the most frequent side effects. Outcomes in special populations (patients aged ≥65 years and those with psychiatric history or learning difficulty) were consistent with the overall population. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with focal seizures taking ESL monotherapy had excellent retention, high seizure-free rates, and good tolerability up to 2 years.

BRIVA-LIFE-A multicenter retrospective study of the long-term use of brivaracetam in clinical practice.

OBJECTIVES: Evaluate long-term effectiveness and tolerability of brivaracetam in clinical practice in patients with focal epilepsy. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This was a multicenter retrospective study. Patients aged ≥16 years were started on brivaracetam from November 2016 to June 2017 and followed over 1 year. Data were obtained from medical records at 3, 6 and 12 months after treatment initiation for evaluation of safety- and seizure-related outcomes. RESULTS: A total of 575 patients were included in analyses; most had been treated with ≥4 lifetime antiepileptic drugs. Target dosage was achieved by 30.6% of patients on the first day. Analysis of primary variables at 12 months revealed that mean reduction in seizure frequency was 36.0%, 39.7% of patients were ≥50% responders and 17.5% were seizure-free. Seizure-freedom was achieved by 37.5% of patients aged ≥65 years. Incidence of adverse events (AEs) and psychiatric AEs (PAEs) was 39.8% and 14.3%, respectively, and discontinuation due to these was 8.9% and 3.7%, respectively. Somnolence, irritability, and dizziness were the most frequently reported AEs. At baseline, 228 (39.7%) patients were being treated with levetiracetam; most switched to brivaracetam (dose ratio 1:10-15). Among those who switched because of PAEs (n = 53), 9 (17%) reported PAEs on brivaracetam, and 3 (5.7%) discontinued because of PAEs. Tolerability was not highly affected among patients with learning disability or psychiatric comorbidity. CONCLUSIONS: In a large population of patients with predominantly drug-resistant epilepsy, brivaracetam was effective and well-tolerated; no unexpected AEs occurred over 1 year, and the incidence of PAEs was lower compared with levetiracetam.

Definición clínico-patológica de los subtipos de epilepsia temporal medial con esclerosis del hipocampo / Clinical and pathological definition of temporal medium epilepsy subtypes with hypocampic sclerosis

Antecedentes y objetivo: La epilepsia temporal con esclerosis hipocampal es la causa más frecuente de epilepsia refractaria, y la indicación más común de cirugía. Aunque eficaz, la cirugía fracasa hasta en un 40% de los pacientes. El objetivo de nuestro trabajo es establecer una correlación entre los distintos subtipos histológicos de epilepsia temporal con esclerosis hipocampal y el pronóstico, control de crisis, efectos secundarios y retirada de fármacos anticomiciales en los pacientes con epilepsia resistente a fármacos intervenidos. Pacientes y método: Se analizaron de forma retrospectiva las historias clínicas y muestras anatomopatológicas de 228 pacientes con epilepsia temporal intervenidos en nuestro centro entre los años 1993 y 2014. Todos fueron sometidos a una evaluación prequirúrgica estándar e intervenidos mediante una resección temporal anterior (modificada de Spencer). El estudio anatomopatológico incluyó el protocolo de hematoxilina-eosina e inmunohistoquímico estándar, con especial interés en la valoración de pérdida neuronal con NeuN. El control de las crisis fue valorado de acuerdo a la escala de resultados de la ILAE y de Engel. El seguimiento medio fue de 8,6 años (2-19). Resultados: A los 10 años tras la intervención, un 67,9% de los pacientes se encontraban libres de crisis (ILAE 1). Un 77,5% de los pacientes estaba libre de crisis (Engel 1) al final del seguimiento. La probabilidad de quedar sin crisis (ILAE 1) tras la cirugía a los 2 (p = 0,042), 5 (p = 0,001) y 7 (p = 0,022) años fue mayor en las formas clásica y severa frente a las formas de esclerosis aislada CA1 y CA4. Una mayor pérdida neuronal medida con NeuN en CA1 se relacionó con un mejor resultado en el control de las crisis (análisis multivariante, p = 0,08). La presencia de antecedentes personales desencadenantes de epilepsia se relacionó con una mayor pérdida neuronal en CA1 (p = 0,028) y CA3 (p = 0,034), y la presencia de auras psíquicas con una mayor pérdida de neuronas en CA3 (p = 0,025). En nuestro caso, la probabilidad de dejar la medicación se relacionó con la presencia de antecedentes personales (p = 0,003) y, de forma inversa, con la pérdida neuronal en CA1 (p = 0,036) y CA3 (p = 0,038). El mayor deterioro de memoria verbal ocurrió en aquellos pacientes con menor pérdida neuronal en CA1 (p = 0,023), CA2 (p = 0,049) y CA3 (p = 0,035). Conclusiones: Los resultados señalan que los subtipos clásico y severo tienen un mejor pronóstico en el control de las crisis frente a las formas atípicas, validándose la utilidad clínica y pronóstica de la clasificación de consenso de los subtipos histológicos de esclerosis hipocampal de la ILAE. Se ha demostrado el valor de la inmunohistoquímica en la epilepsia temporal con esclerosis hipocampal como un elemento clave para determinar el pronóstico en el control de las crisis y neuropsicológico de los pacientes tras la cirugía

Background and objective: Mesial temporal lobe epilepsy with hippocampal sclerosis is the most common cause of refractory epilepsy, and the most common indication for surgery. Although effective, surgery fails in up to 40% of patients. The objective of our study was to establish a correlation between the different histological subtypes of mesial temporal lobe epilepsy with hippocampal sclerosis and the prognosis, seizures control, side effects and anticonvulsivant drug withdrawal in patients with refractory epilepsy. Patients and method: Clinical histories and anatomopathological specimens of 228 patients with temporal epilepsy surgically obtained at our hospital between 1993 and 2014 were retrospectively analysed. All patients underwent a standard preoperative evaluation and anterior temporal resection (modified from Spencer). The anatomopathological study included the standard hematoxylin-eosin and immunohistochemical protocol, with special interest in the assessment of neuronal loss with NeuN. Seizure control was assessed according to the scale of results of the ILAE and Engel. The mean follow-up was 8.6 years (2-19). Results: At 10 years after the intervention, 67.9% of patients were seizure-free (ILAE 1) and as many as 77.5% of the patients were seizure-free (Engel 1) at the end of the follow-up. The probability of not having a seizure (ILAE 1) after surgery at 2 (p=.042), 5 (p=.001) and 7 years (p=.22) was higher in classic and severe forms compared to isolated sclerosis CA1 and CA4 forms. Higher neuronal loss measured with the NeuN immunostain in CA1 was associated with better outcome in seizure management (multivariate analysis, p=.08). The presence of a personal history of epilepsy was associated with greater neuronal loss in CA1 (p=.028) and CA3 (p=.034), and the presence of psychic auras was related with greater neuronal loss in CA3 (p=.025). In our case, the probability of medication withdrawal was related to the presence of personal history (p=.003) and, inversely, to neuronal loss in CA1 (p=.036) and CA3 (p=.038). The greatest impairment of verbal memory occurred in those patients with a lower neuronal loss in CA1 (p=.023), CA2 (p=.049) and CA3 (p=.035). Conclusions: The results indicate that the classical and severe subtypes have a better prognosis in the control of seizures against the atypical forms, validating the clinical and prognostic utility of the classification of histological subtypes of hippocampal sclerosis from the ILAE. The value of the immunohistochemistry in the mesial temporal lobe epilepsy with hippocampal sclerosis has been demonstrated as a key element to determine the neuropsychological prognosis and seizure management of the patients after surgery

[Clinical and pathological definition of temporal medium epilepsy subtypes with hypocampic sclerosis]. / Definición clínico-patológica de los subtipos de epilepsia temporal medial con esclerosis del hipocampo.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Mesial temporal lobe epilepsy with hippocampal sclerosis is the most common cause of refractory epilepsy, and the most common indication for surgery. Although effective, surgery fails in up to 40% of patients. The objective of our study was to establish a correlation between the different histological subtypes of mesial temporal lobe epilepsy with hippocampal sclerosis and the prognosis, seizures control, side effects and anticonvulsivant drug withdrawal in patients with refractory epilepsy. PATIENTS AND METHOD: Clinical histories and anatomopathological specimens of 228 patients with temporal epilepsy surgically obtained at our hospital between 1993 and 2014 were retrospectively analysed. All patients underwent a standard preoperative evaluation and anterior temporal resection (modified from Spencer). The anatomopathological study included the standard hematoxylin-eosin and immunohistochemical protocol, with special interest in the assessment of neuronal loss with NeuN. Seizure control was assessed according to the scale of results of the ILAE and Engel. The mean follow-up was 8.6 years (2-19). RESULTS: At 10 years after the intervention, 67.9% of patients were seizure-free (ILAE 1) and as many as 77.5% of the patients were seizure-free (Engel 1) at the end of the follow-up. The probability of not having a seizure (ILAE 1) after surgery at 2 (p=.042), 5 (p=.001) and 7 years (p=.22) was higher in classic and severe forms compared to isolated sclerosis CA1 and CA4 forms. Higher neuronal loss measured with the NeuN immunostain in CA1 was associated with better outcome in seizure management (multivariate analysis, p=.08). The presence of a personal history of epilepsy was associated with greater neuronal loss in CA1 (p=.028) and CA3 (p=.034), and the presence of psychic auras was related with greater neuronal loss in CA3 (p=.025). In our case, the probability of medication withdrawal was related to the presence of personal history (p=.003) and, inversely, to neuronal loss in CA1 (p=.036) and CA3 (p=.038). The greatest impairment of verbal memory occurred in those patients with a lower neuronal loss in CA1 (p=.023), CA2 (p=.049) and CA3 (p=.035). CONCLUSIONS: The results indicate that the classical and severe subtypes have a better prognosis in the control of seizures against the atypical forms, validating the clinical and prognostic utility of the classification of histological subtypes of hippocampal sclerosis from the ILAE. The value of the immunohistochemistry in the mesial temporal lobe epilepsy with hippocampal sclerosis has been demonstrated as a key element to determine the neuropsychological prognosis and seizure management of the patients after surgery.

Eslicarbazepine acetate and carotid intima-media thickness in epileptic patients.

OBJECTIVE: Evaluate if eslicarbazepine acetate (ESL) in combination with other non-inducer antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) in the treatment of epilepsy may represent a positive impact in the cardiovascular risk profile. METHODS: multicentre, retrospective, observational, non-interventional, real-life study comparing patients treated with cytochrome P450 (CYP) inducer vs. ESL plus non-inducer AEDs. Primary endpoint: Carotid intima-media thickness (CIMT) measured following the Manheim Consensus criteria. RESULTS: Patients included: 163. The main demographic, clinical and vascular risk parameters were comparable between the two groups except for duration of the disease, prevalence of dyslipidemia and use of lipid-lowering drugs (significantly higher in the inducers group) and number of previous antiepileptic drugs (significantly higher in the non-inducers group). Bivariate analysis of the main endpoint showed almost significant differences (p=0.05) in CIMT measures favourable to non-inducers (average 0.617mm+SD=0.148) vs. inducers (average 0.663mm+SD=0.147). Other variables reaching statistical significance were: age >50 years (p<0.001), high blood pressure (p<0.01) and dyslipidemia (p<0.05). A multivariate analysis including these variables and biochemical vascular risk factors showed a predictor model including two variables: inducers group (p=0.031; Coefficient ß=0.234) and age >50 years (p=0.001; Coefficient ß=0.387). Regarding gender, the mean CIMT in males was significantly higher in the inducers (0.693mm; SD=0.139) than in the non- inducers groups (0.628mm; SD=0.151; p<0.05). In females the differences were not significant. SIGNIFICANCE: The use of CYP inducer AEDs is associated with a significant increase in CIMT as compared with ESL and other non-inducer AEDs. The study shows a decrease in the vascular risk measured by ultrasound criteria in male patients treated with ESL compared with patients treated with inducer AEDs.

NEOPLASM study: Real-life use of lacosamide in patients with brain tumor-related epilepsy.

BACKGROUND: The choice of antiepileptic drug (AED) therapy in patients with brain tumor-related epilepsy (BTRE) is complicated, and there are a lack of robust clinical trial data to date. METHODS: The NEOPLASM (Neuroncologic Patients treated with LAcoSaMide) study was a 6-month, multicenter, retrospective, observational study in patients with BTRE treated with lacosamide. Patients were started on lacosamide because of a lack of efficacy or adverse events (AEs) with prior AEDs or suitability versus other AEDs, according to clinical practice. The primary efficacy variable was the seizure-free rate at 6months. Safety variables included the proportion of patients with an AE and the proportion with an AE that led to discontinuation. RESULTS: Overall, 105 patients from 14 hospital centers were included in the analysis. Treatment with lacosamide for 6months resulted in a 30.8% seizure-free rate, and 66.3% of patients had a ≥50% seizure reduction (responders). In the subset of patients included because of a lack of efficacy with prior AEDs, seizure-free rates were 28.0%, and 66.7% of patients were responders. No statistically significant differences in efficacy were observed according to the mechanism of action or enzyme-inducing properties of concomitant AEDs. Adverse events were reported by 41.9% of patients at 6months, and 4.7% of them led to discontinuation. The most common AEs were somnolence/fatigue and dizziness. Notably, 57.1% of the patients who were switched to lacosamide because of AEs with their previous therapy did not report any AE at 6-month follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: In this open-label, observational study, lacosamide appeared to be effective and well tolerated in a large population of patients with BTRE. Lacosamide may therefore be a promising option for the treatment of patients with BTRE.

[Combined treatment with antiepileptic drugs. Andalusian Epilepsy Guide 2015]. / Tratamiento combinado con fármacos antiepilépticos. Guía Andaluza de Epilepsia 2015.

AIMS: The aim of this study was to draw up a set of recommendations based on scientific evidence and in agreement with authors and reviewers, which address fundamental issues concerning the combination of antiepileptic drugs. DEVELOPMENT: A committee of 11 experts belonging to the Sociedad Andaluza de Epilepsia (SAdE--Andalusian Epilepsy Society), of whom seven were neurologists, three were neuropaediatricians and one was a neurologist-neurophysiologist, all of them with long experience in epilepsy, promoted a comprehensive literature review among 55 experts in epilepsy who were members of the SAdE, with the aim of searching for any evidence that might be available on diagnostic or therapeutic matters in epilepsy. The guidelines were set out in 35 chapters. One of the chapters addressed the combination of antiepileptic drugs in the treatment of epilepsy. Taking 77 bibliographical references and the consensus view of authors and reviewers as their starting point, a set of easily applicable recommendations were drawn up. CONCLUSIONS: Combining antiepileptic drugs in patients with epilepsy whose seizures are not controlled with a single drug can, on many occasions, result in their going back into remission. There are a series of factors related with the type of epilepsy and characteristics of the patient and with the antiepileptic drugs to be used in combination that may favour a successful therapeutic outcome. Over-treatment with the combination of antiepileptic drugs must be avoided as far as possible. The results of this review provide a set of recommendations regarding combined treatment with antiepileptic drugs, based on scientific evidence and the agreement of authors, that are simple, useful and easy to apply at the different levels of healthcare.

TITLE: Tratamiento combinado con farmacos antiepilepticos. Guia Andaluza de Epilepsia 2015.Objetivo. Elaborar unas recomendaciones basadas en evidencias cientificas y en consenso de los autores y revisores, que aborden las cuestiones basicas acerca de la combinacion de farmacos antiepilepticos. Desarrollo. Un comite de 11 expertos pertenecientes a la Sociedad Andaluza de Epilepsia (SAdE), constituido por siete neurologos, tres neuropediatras y un neurologo-neurofisiologo, todos con especial competencia en epilepsia, promovieron la realizacion de una revision bibliografica exhaustiva entre 55 expertos en epilepsia pertenecientes a la SAdE, en busca de evidencias disponibles relacionadas con temas diagnosticos o terapeuticos en epilepsia. La guia se estructuro en 35 capitulos. Uno de los capitulos abordo la combinacion de farmacos antiepilepticos en el tratamiento de la epilepsia. Basandose en 77 citas bibliograficas y en la opinion consensuada de autores y revisores, se confecciono una serie de recomendaciones de facil aplicacion. Conclusiones. La combinacion de farmacos antiepilepticos en los pacientes con epilepsia cuyas crisis no estan controladas con un solo farmaco puede conseguir en numerosas ocasiones que entren en remision. Existe una serie de factores relacionados con el tipo de epilepsia y caracteristicas del paciente y con los farmacos antiepilepticos que se van a utilizar en combinacion que pueden favorecer el exito terapeutico. Se debe evitar en lo posible el sobretratamiento con la combinacion de farmacos antiepilepticos. Los resultados de esta revision proveen unas recomendaciones sobre el tratamiento combinado con farmacos antiepilepticos, basadas en evidencias cientificas y en el consenso de los autores, utiles, sencillas y aplicables en los diferentes niveles asistenciales.

Tratamiento combinado con fármacos antiepilépticos. Guía Andaluza de Epilepsia 2015 / Combined treatment with antiepileptic drugs. Andalusian Epilepsy Guide 2015

Objetivo. Elaborar unas recomendaciones basadas en evidencias científicas y en consenso de los autores y revisores, que aborden las cuestiones básicas acerca de la combinación de fármacos antiepilépticos. Desarrollo. Un comité de 11 expertos pertenecientes a la Sociedad Andaluza de Epilepsia (SAdE), constituido por siete neurólogos, tres neuropediatras y un neurólogo-neurofisiólogo, todos con especial competencia en epilepsia, promovieron la realización de una revisión bibliográfica exhaustiva entre 55 expertos en epilepsia pertenecientes a la SAdE, en busca de evidencias disponibles relacionadas con temas diagnósticos o terapéuticos en epilepsia. La guía se estructuró en 35 capítulos. Uno de los capítulos abordó la combinación de fármacos antiepilépticos en el tratamiento de la epilepsia. Basándose en 77 citas bibliográficas y en la opinión consensuada de autores y revisores, se confeccionó una serie de recomendaciones de fácil aplicación. Conclusiones. La combinación de fármacos antiepilépticos en los pacientes con epilepsia cuyas crisis no están controladas con un solo fármaco puede conseguir en numerosas ocasiones que entren en remisión. Existe una serie de factores relacionados con el tipo de epilepsia y características del paciente y con los fármacos antiepilépticos que se van a utilizar en combinación que pueden favorecer el éxito terapéutico. Se debe evitar en lo posible el sobretratamiento con la combinación de fármacos antiepilépticos. Los resultados de esta revisión proveen unas recomendaciones sobre el tratamiento combinado con fármacos antiepilépticos, basadas en evidencias científicas y en el consenso de los autores, útiles, sencillas y aplicables en los diferentes niveles asistenciales (AU)

Aim. To draw up a set of recommendations based on scientific evidence and in agreement with authors and reviewers, which address fundamental issues concerning the combination of antiepileptic drugs. Development. A committee of 11 experts belonging to the Sociedad Andaluza de Epilepsia (SAdE - Andalusian Epilepsy Society), of whom seven were neurologists, three were neuropaediatricians and one was a neurologist-neurophysiologist, all of them with long experience in epilepsy, promoted a comprehensive literature review among 55 experts in epilepsy who were members of the SAdE, with the aim of searching for any evidence that might be available on diagnostic or therapeutic matters in epilepsy. The guidelines were set out in 35 chapters. One of the chapters addressed the combination f antiepileptic drugs in the treatment of epilepsy. Taking 77 bibliographical references and the consensus view of authors and reviewers as their starting point, a set of easily applicable recommendations were drawn up. Conclusions. Combining antiepileptic drugs in patients with epilepsy whose seizures are not controlled with a single drug can, on many occasions, result in their going back into remission. There are a series of factors related with the type of epilepsy and characteristics of the patient and with the antiepileptic drugs to be used in combination that may favour a successful therapeutic outcome. Over-treatment with the combination of antiepileptic drugs must be avoided as far as possible. The results of this review provide a set of recommendations regarding combined treatment with antiepileptic drugs, based on scientific evidence and the agreement of authors, that are simple, useful and easy to apply at the different levels of healthcare (AU)

Review of therapeutic options for adjuvant treatment of focal seizures in epilepsy: focus on lacosamide.

Epilepsy is one of the most common serious neurological conditions worldwide, with an age-adjusted incidence of approximately 50 per 100,000 persons per year in developed countries. Antiepileptic therapy can result in long-term remission in 60-70% of patients, but many patients will require combination treatment to achieve optimal seizure control, as monotherapy is ineffective at controlling seizures in 30-53% of patients. Despite the increase in available treatment options, patient outcomes have not improved significantly and there is still a need for more effective therapies. Drugs used in the treatment of focal-onset seizures are a diverse range of compounds, and in most cases their mechanism of action is unknown or poorly defined. This review discusses the efficacy and safety of the newer adjuvant antiepileptic therapies that may improve outcomes in patients unresponsive to monotherapy, including clobazam, vigabatrin, lamotrigine, gabapentin, topiramate, tiagabine, levetiracetam, oxcarbazepine, pregabalin, zonisamide and eslicarbazepine, with focus on lacosamide. Lacosamide has been shown to exert its anticonvulsant effects predominantly by enhancement of the slow inactivation of voltage-gated sodium channels. Lacosamide is indicated for use as adjuvant treatment of focal-onset seizures in patients with epilepsy, and there is some evidence that it may also be of use in patients with status epilepticus and cancer patients with epilepsy. The efficacy of lacosamide has been assessed in three randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trials, all of which have shown lacosamide to be effective at reducing seizure frequency and increasing 50% responder rates in patients with focal-onset seizures. Long-term lacosamide treatment is generally well tolerated and is not associated with significant drug interactions; the availability of an intravenous form of the drug also makes it particularly useful for a broad range of patients.