The Systematics, Reproductive Biology, Biochemistry, and Breeding of Sea Buckthorn-A Review.

Both the fruit flesh and seeds of sea buckthorn have multiple uses for medicinal and culinary purposes, including the valuable market for supplementary health foods. Bioactive compounds, such as essential amino acids, vitamins B, C, and E, carotenoids, polyphenols, ursolic acid, unsaturated fatty acids, and other active substances, are now being analyzed in detail for their medicinal properties. Domestication with commercial orchards and processing plants is undertaken in many countries, but there is a large need for improved plant material with high yield, tolerance to environmental stress, diseases, and pests, suitability for efficient harvesting methods, and high contents of compounds that have medicinal and/or culinary values. Applied breeding is based mainly on directed crosses between different subspecies of Hippophae rhamnoides. DNA markers have been applied to analyses of systematics and population genetics as well as for the discrimination of cultivars, but very few DNA markers have as yet been developed for use in selection and breeding. Several key genes in important metabolic pathways have, however, been identified, and four genomes have recently been sequenced.

Processed meat products with added plant antioxidants affect the microbiota and immune response in C57BL/6JRj mice with cyclically induced chronic inflammation.

Epidemiological studies have found that there is a correlation between red and processed meat consumption and an increased risk of colorectal cancer. There are numerous existing hypotheses on what underlying mechanisms are causative to this correlation, but the results remain unclear. A common hypothesis is that lipid oxidation, which occurs in endogenous lipids and phospholipids in consumed food, are catalyzed by the heme iron in meat. In this study, five pre-selected plant antioxidant preparations (sea buckthorn leaves and sprouts, summer savory leaves, olive polyphenols, onion skin and lyophilized black currant leaves) were added to a meatball type prone to oxidize (pork meat, 20 % fat, 2% salt, deep-fried and after 2 weeks of storage). Pro-inflammatory markers, neutrophil infiltration and microbiota composition were studied after four months in a chronic inflammation model in C57BL6/J female mice. We found that the bacterial diversity index was affected, as well as initial immunological reactions.

Review of the Impact of Apple Fruit Ripening, Texture and Chemical Contents on Genetically Determined Susceptibility to Storage Rots.

Fungal storage rots like blue mould, grey mould, bull's eye rot, bitter rot and brown rot destroy large amounts of the harvested apple crop around the world. Application of fungicides is nowadays severely restricted in many countries and production systems, and these problems are therefore likely to increase. Considerable variation among apple cultivars in resistance/susceptibility has been reported, suggesting that efficient defence mechanisms can be selected for and used in plant breeding. These are, however, likely to vary between pathogens, since some fungi are mainly wound-mediated while others attack through lenticels or by infecting blossoms. Since mature fruits are considerably more susceptible than immature fruits, mechanisms involving fruit-ripening processes are likely to play an important role. Significant associations have been detected between the susceptibility to rots in harvested fruit and various fruit maturation-related traits like ripening time, fruit firmness at harvest and rate of fruit softening during storage, as well as fruit biochemical contents like acidity, sugars and polyphenols. Some sources of resistance to blue mould have been described, but more research is needed on the development of spore inoculation methods that produce reproducible data and can be used for large screenings, especially for lenticel-infecting fungi.

Lipid oxidation inhibition capacity of plant extracts and powders in a processed meat model system.

A meat model system was used for screening lipid oxidation inhibiting capacity of diverse horticultural plant materials. In the model, heme-containing sarcoplasmic proteins from the meat water-phase were homogenized with linoleic acid and thiobarbituric reactive substances (TBARS) were measured. 23 Plant materials were investigated at three high (50, 100, and 200 ppm) concentrations and five plant extracts were tested at three low (5, 10, and 20 ppm) concentrations over time. In the high concentration sets, summer savory freeze-dried powder, beetroot leaves extracted with 50% ethanol, and an olive polyphenol powder extracted from wastewater, inhibited oxidation the most effectively. After two weeks and at 200 ppm concentration, oxidation was reduced to 17.2%, 16.6% and 13.5% of the blank sample with no added antioxidants respectively. In the low concentration set, spray dried rhubarb juice inhibited oxidation the most after two weeks at 5 ppm where oxidation was reduced to 68.3% of the blank sample with no added antioxidants.

Lipid Oxidation Inhibition Capacity of 11 Plant Materials and Extracts Evaluated in Highly Oxidised Cooked Meatballs.

The underlying mechanism(s) behind the potential carcinogenicity of processed meat is a popular research subject of which the lipid oxidation is a common suspect. Different formulations and cooking parameters of a processed meat product were evaluated for their capacity to induce lipid oxidation. Meatballs made of beef or pork, containing different concentrations of fat (10 or 20 g 100 g-1), salt (2 or 4 g 100 g-1), subjected to differing cooking types (pan or deep frying), and storage times (1, 7, and 14 days), were evaluated using thiobarbituric reactive substances (TBARS). The deep-fried meatball type most susceptible to oxidation was used as the model meat product for testing the lipid oxidation inhibiting capacity of 11 plant materials and extracts, in two concentrations (100 and 200 mg kg-1 gallic acid equivalent (GAE)), measured after 14 days of storage using TBARS. Summer savory lyophilized powder was the most efficient plant material, lowering lipid oxidation to 13.8% and 21.8% at the 200 and 100 mg kg-1 concentration, respectively, followed by a sea buckthorn leaf extract, lowering lipid oxidation to 22.9% at 100 mg kg-1, compared to the meatball without added antioxidants. The lipid oxidation was thus successfully reduced using these natural antioxidants.

Water and ethanol extracts of Plantago major leaves show anti-inflammatory activity on oral epithelial cells.

CONTEXT: The leaves of Plantago major have been used for the treatment of wounds and inflammation in folk medicine from prehistoric times. However there is no report on the use of P. major to treat inflammation in oral epithelial cell lines. OBJECTIVE: The present study was undertaken to reveal possible anti-inflammatory effects of Plantago major leaf extracts on oral epithelial cells in-vitro. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Water- and ethanol-based extracts of P. major leaves were prepared from freeze-dried plant material, and tested in-vitro using the oral epithelial cell line H400. The anti-inflammatory activity of P. major was tested against E. coli lipopolysaccharide (LPS) using the nuclear factor kappa beta (NF-kB) assay. RESULTS: Both the water- and the ethanol-based extracts, as well as a combination of the two extracts, showed anti-inflammatory activity. A concentration of 0.1 mg/mL (on dry weight basis) yielded the best results for all extracts. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: The results show that synergistic effects of both polyphenols and water-soluble compounds (possibly polysaccharides) are responsible for anti-inflammatory activities of P. major.

Methodological considerations in a pilot study on the effects of a berry enriched smoothie on children's performance in school.

Berries contain bioactive compounds that may affect children's cognitive function positively, while hunger and thirst during lessons before lunch affect academic performance negatively. This pilot study addresses methodological challenges in studying if a berry smoothie, offered to schoolchildren as a mid-morning beverage, affects academic performance. The objective was to investigate if a cross-over design can be used to study these effects in a school setting. Therefore, in order to investigate assay sensitivity, 236 Swedish children aged 10-12 years were administered either a berry smoothie (active) or a fruit-based control beverage after their mid-morning break. Both beverages provided 5% of child daily energy intake. In total, 91% of participants completed the study. Academic performance was assessed using the d2 test of attention. Statistical analyses were performed using the Wilcoxon signed rank test in StatXact v 10.3. The results showed that the children consumed less of the active berry smoothie than the control (154 g vs. 246 g). Both beverages increased attention span and concentration significantly (p = 0.000). However, as there was no significant difference (p = 0.938) in the magnitude of this effect between the active and control beverages, the assay sensitivity of the study design was not proven. The effect of the beverages on academic performance was attributed the supplementation of water and energy. Despite careful design, the active smoothie was less accepted than the control. This could be explained by un-familiar sensory characteristics and peer influence, stressing the importance of sensory similarity and challenges to perform a study in school settings. The employed cross-over design did not reveal any effects of bioactive compound consumption on academic performance. In future studies, the experimental set up should be modified or replaced by e.g. the parallel study design, in order to provide conclusive results.

Antioxidant capacity and major phenol compounds of horticultural plant materials not usually used.

Horticultural plant materials not usually used from onion, carrot, beetroot, sea buckthorn, black and red currants as well as a wastewater powder from olive oil production were analyzed for total phenols content (FC), ferric reducing ability of plasma (FRAP), radical scavenging capacity (ABTS), and for major phenolic compounds by HPLC-MS. Antioxidant capacity and phenol content varied significantly between species and cultivars, with extracts of sea buckthorn leaves being superior. In different species, different phenolic compounds were closely associated with FRAP, ABTS and FC. For instance, hydrolysable tannins were major antioxidants in sea buckthorn whereas quercetin was the major antioxidant in onion peel and skin. This study shows that horticultural plant materials usually left in the field or waste materials from processing may have high antioxidant properties, and that extracts of these materials therefore could be of potential interest for development of antioxidant food additives.

Alteration of Neutrophil Reactive Oxygen Species Production by Extracts of Devil's Claw (Harpagophytum).

Harpagophytum, Devil's Claw, is a genus of tuberiferous xerophytic plants native to southern Africa. Some of the taxa are appreciated for their medicinal effects and have been traditionally used to relieve symptoms of inflammation. The objectives of this pilot study were to investigate the antioxidant capacity and the content of total phenols, verbascoside, isoverbascoside, and selected iridoids, as well as to investigate the capacity of various Harpagophytum taxa in suppressing respiratory burst in terms of reactive oxygen species produced by human neutrophils challenged with phorbol myristate acetate (PMA), opsonised Staphylococcus aureus, and Fusobacterium nucleatum. Harpagophytum plants were classified into different taxa according to morphology, and DNA analysis was used to confirm the classification. A putative new variety of H. procumbens showed the highest degree of antioxidative capacity. Using PMA, three Harpagophytum taxa showed anti-inflammatory effects with regard to the PBS control. A putative hybrid between H. procumbens and H. zeyheri in contrast showed proinflammatory effect on the response of neutrophils to F. nucleatum in comparison with treatment with vehicle control. Harpagophytum taxa were biochemically very variable and the response in suppressing respiratory burst differed. Further studies with larger number of subjects are needed to corroborate anti-inflammatory effects of different taxa of Harpagophytum.

Promotion of wound healing by Plantago major L. leaf extracts--ex-vivo experiments confirm experiences from traditional medicine.

The wound-healing properties of Plantago major L. (plantain) were evaluated using an ex-vivo porcine wound-healing model. Ethanol- and water-based extracts were prepared from greenhouse-grown and freeze-dried leaves of P. major. Both types of extracts stimulated wound healing in porcine skin, but the ethanol-based extracts had a somewhat stronger effect. A concentration of 1.0 mg/mL (on dry weight basis) produced the best results for both types of extracts.

Phenolic compounds in blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum L.) leaves relative to leaf position and harvest date.

Blackcurrant leaves are an essential source of phenolic compounds and this study investigated their variation relative to leaf positions and harvest date. The phenolic content varied between harvest dates, although leaf position on the shoot and interactions also played an important role. The contents of quercetin-malonyl-glucoside, kaempferol-malonyl-glucoside isomer and kaempferol-malonyl-glucoside were higher than that of the other identified phenolic compounds, whereas epigallocatechin was the lowest for all investigated leaf positions and harvest dates. The content of several of the compounds was highest in June, while quercetin-glucoside, kaempferol-glucoside and total phenols, increased towards the end of the season. Leaf position influenced the content of myricetin-malonyl-glucoside, myricetin-malonyl-glucoside isomer, quercetin-malonyl-glucoside and kaempferol-glucoside at the end of the season. Knowledge relating to the influence of ontogenetic and harvest time on the content of specific phenolic compounds might contribute in tailoring functional foods or pharmaceutical products using blackcurrant leaves as natural ingredients.

Phenols and ascorbic acid in black currants (Ribes nigrum L.): variation due to genotype, location, and year.

Black currant berries contain many biochemical compounds with proven or potential human health benefits. We studied the content of total and single polyphenols, ascorbic acid, soluble sugars, and titratable acidity for two advanced selections and three cultivars of black currant at two distant locations in Sweden (south: 56°06'N; north: 65°21'N) over a 3 year period. Regression analyses revealed the effect of genotype to be considerably larger than that of location and year. However, significant effects of location, year, and interactions were also revealed. A principal component analysis nevertheless separated the genotypes. The content of ascorbic acid, total phenols, total anthocyanins, and soluble sugars was highest in berries from the south, whereas the content of phenolic acids and titratable acidity was highest in berries from the north. The results show that selection of cultivars and production sites are important for cultivation of high-quality black currant raw material for health-promoting products.

Advances in improvement of quality and resistance in a multipurpose crop: sea buckthorn.

Sea buckthorn is a berry crop with multiple uses. The berries are highly appreciated for their unique taste but are also very rich in bioactive compounds with powerful nutritional and medicinal values. In addition, the plants grow well under adverse conditions, and are often used to fight soil erosion. Utilization of sea buckthorn has therefore increased around the world but serious problems have, nevertheless, been encountered due to drought, salinity, diseases and insect pests. This review covers important aspects of sea buckthorn research, such as heritable and environmentally induced variation in biochemical compounds, causes and effects of the devastating dried-shrink disease, susceptibility to insect pests, methods for conventional breeding, and the utilization of DNA markers for taxonomical and population genetic analyses, and for investigating the inheritance of quality and resistance traits. We also present possibilities to implement innovative biotechnological breeding methods, especially metabolite profiling and MAS/GRC-based markers, for fast and efficient development of elite genotypes with specific nutritional- and health-related bioactive compounds and strong resistance to biotic and abiotic stress.

An optimized method for analysis of phenolic compounds in buds, leaves, and fruits of black currant ( Ribes nigrum L.).

Although the fruits are the economic driver for the black currant industry, the buds and leaves are excellent sources of beneficial phenolic compounds that may contribute to the future value of the crop. In this study, extraction of phenolic compounds for different parts of the black currant plant was optimized, and an efficient method for their separation by HPLC was developed. This allowed the simultaneous quantification of a range of hydroxycinnamic acids, flavan-3-ols, flavonols, and anthocyanins by DAD following their identification by HPLC-ESI-MS(n). A total of 23 compounds were detected in the buds, 22 of which were found in fruit and leaves. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of flavonol glycosides of quercetin, myricetin, isorhamnetin, and kaempferol along with hydroxycinnamic acids such as neo-chlorogenic acid and chlorogenic acid in the buds. Additionally, we provide the first evidence of kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside in black currant leaves. This approach offers avenues for superior combined compositional identification and cultivar selection targeted at the generation of polyphenol-rich products derived from the whole crop and not just the fruit.

Effects of Plantago major L. leaf extracts on oral epithelial cells in a scratch assay.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: The present study was undertaken to evaluate the effects from different leaf extracts of the traditional medicinal herb Plantago major L. (plantain) on cell proliferation and migration in vitro, as a test for potential wound healing properties. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Water and ethanol-based extracts were prepared from Plantago major fresh and dried leaves, and tested in vitro in a scratch assay with oral epithelial cells. RESULTS: The scratch assay produced reliable results after 18 h. Most of the tested extracts increased the proliferation/migration of the oral epithelial cells compared to the negative control. A concentration of 1.0 mg/mL (on dry weight basis) appears to be optimal regardless of type of extract, and among the alternatives, 0.1 mg/mL was always better than 10 mg/mL. Ethanol-based extracts with a concentration of 10 mg/mL had very detrimental effects on cell proliferation/migration. At the other two concentrations, ethanol-based extracts had the most beneficial effect, followed by water extracts of fresh leaves, ethanol plus water extracts of dried leaves and, finally, water extracts of dried leaves. CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that both the water extracts and the more polyphenol-rich ethanol-based extracts of Plantago major leaves have medicinal properties. Further research is, however, needed to determine what compounds are responsible for the wound healing effects.

Tocopherols in rose hips (Rosa spp.) during ripening.

BACKGROUND: Rose hips are used as a food ingredient and in health products. They are rich in various bioactive compounds such as carotenoids and vitamin C, but data on their vitamin E content (tocopherols and tocotrienols) are limited. In this study, four different species of Rosa were analysed for tocopherol and tocotrienol content during ripening in three different years. RESULTS: Only α- and γ-tocopherol were found in the fleshy parts of the rose hips, and the tocopherol content and vitamin E activity varied depending on date of harvesting, species and year. The amount of vitamin E activity differed between species of Rosa and years, whereas the changes during ripening were relatively small. CONCLUSION: The choice of species must be considered if tocopherol content is to be optimised when rose hips are used as a food ingredient.

Effects of sampling time and nitrogen fertilization on anthocyanidin levels in Vaccinium myrtillus fruits.

Vaccinium myrtillus berries (bilberries) contain antioxidants, in particular anthocyanins, which are secondary metabolites that have proven health-promoting effects. Bilberries were collected at the Svartberget research forest in northern Sweden from plots with no, low, and high applications of NH(4)NO(3) on three replicated dates in each year from 2005-2007, and their anthocyanidin contents were analyzed by high performance liquid chromatography. Their mean total anthocyanidin contents were 9.0, 6.2, and 22.7 mg/g DW in 2005, 2006, and 2007, respectively. The values were significantly higher in 2005 than in 2006 and significantly higher in 2007 than in both previous years, across all three sampling dates. In addition, anthocyanidin contents were significantly affected by sampling date in all years (P < 0.001); they were linearly correlated with the thermal sum in 2005 and 2007 but rose between the first and second sampling occasions and subsequently declined in 2006. No significant effect of nitrogen fertilization on total anthocyanidin levels was detected in any of the studied years. The results indicate that climatic factors and yearly fluctuations influence anthocyanidin biosynthesis and degradation more strongly than nitrogen availability. To our knowledge, this is the first time this effect of sampling time on anthocyanins in mature bilberries has been shown.

Carotenoids in sea buckthorn ( Hippophae rhamnoides L.) berries during ripening and use of pheophytin a as a maturity marker.

Four cultivars of sea buckthorn berries were analyzed for their carotenoid and chlorophyll contents during ripening in three consecutive years. The different carotenoids generally increased in concentration during ripening and comprised from 120 to 1425 microg/g of DW of total carotenoids (1.5-18.5 mg/100 g of FW) depending on cultivar, harvest time, and year. GLM analyses revealed the effect of cultivar to be considerably larger than that of year and harvest time. The content of pheophytin a, a chlorophyll a derivate, steadily decreased during berry ripening. Pheophytin a therefore acted as a marker of the degree of ripening of sea buckthorn berries and was used here to convert harvest date into an estimated ripening time.

Tocopherols and tocotrienols in sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.) berries during ripening.

Sea buckthorn berries ( Hippophae rhamnoides L.) are used in foods, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical products. They are of particular interest for their high content of healthy phytochemicals, including vitamin E-related compounds (tocopherols and tocotrienols). This study investigated the content of tocopherols and tocotrienols during ripening in berries from four cultivars of sea buckthorn over a three-year period. The results showed large variations in tocopherols and tocotrienols depending on harvest date, cultivar, and year. Levels of alpha-tocopherol were higher early in the ripening period, while at later dates, delta-tocopherol levels increased. Great differences in amounts and composition of tocopherols and tocotrienols were observed between cultivars. Tocopherol levels were positively correlated with daily temperature, but this trend varied between years. Variations in tocopherols and tocotrienol levels in sea buckthorn berries due to cultivar, year, and ripening stage should therefore be considered in the production of nutritional products.