Heavy-metal associated breast cancer and colorectal cancer hot spots and their demographic and socioeconomic characteristics.

PURPOSE: Cancer registries offer an avenue to identify cancer clusters across large populations and efficiently examine potential environmental harms affecting cancer. The role of known metal carcinogens (i.e., cadmium, arsenic, nickel, chromium(VI)) in breast and colorectal carcinogenesis is largely unknown. Historically marginalized communities are disproportionately exposed to metals, which could explain cancer disparities. We examined area-based metal exposures and odds of residing in breast and colorectal cancer hotspots utilizing state tumor registry data and described the characteristics of those living in heavy metal-associated cancer hotspots. METHODS: Breast and colorectal cancer hotspots were mapped across Kentucky, and area-based ambient metal exposure to cadmium, arsenic, nickel, and chromium(VI) were extracted from the 2014 National Air Toxics Assessment for Kentucky census tracts. Among colorectal cancer (n = 56,598) and female breast cancer (n = 77,637) diagnoses in Kentucky, we used logistic regression models to estimate Odds Ratios (ORs) and 95% Confidence Intervals to examine the association between ambient metal concentrations and odds of residing in cancer hotspots, independent of individual-level and neighborhood risk factors. RESULTS: Higher ambient metal exposures were associated with higher odds of residing in breast and colorectal cancer hotspots. Populations in breast and colorectal cancer hotspots were disproportionately Black and had markers of lower socioeconomic status. Furthermore, adjusting for age, race, tobacco and neighborhood factors did not significantly change cancer hotspot ORs for ambient metal exposures analyzed. CONCLUSION: Ambient metal exposures contribute to higher cancer rates in certain geographic areas that are largely composed of marginalized populations. Individual-level assessments of metal exposures and cancer disparities are needed.

Six Square Miles of Urban America: Association Between Firearm Discharge, Injury, and Fatality.

BACKGROUND: Despite the increase in firearm injury observed across the country, significant gaps remain relevant to our understanding of how firearm exposure translates to injury. Using acoustic gunshot detection and a collaborative hospital and law enforcement firearm injury database, we sought to identify the relationship between firearm discharge and injury over time. STUDY DESIGN: From 2018-2021, instances of firearm discharge captured via acoustic detection in six-square miles of Louisville, KY was merged with data from the collaborative firearm injury database. Key outcomes included the total number of rounds fired, injury and fatality rates per round, and the percentage of rounds discharged from automatic weapons and high-capacity magazines. RESULTS: Over the study period, 54,397 rounds of ammunition were discharged resulting in 914 injuries, 435 hospital admissions, 2,442 hospital days, 155 emergent operations, and 180 fatalities. For each round of ammunition fired, the risk of injury and fatality was 1.7% and 0.3% respectively. The total number of rounds fired per month nearly tripled (614 vs. 1,623, p < 0.001) leading to increased injury (15 vs. 37, p < 0.001) and fatality (3 vs. 7, p < 0.001). The percentage of rounds fired from automatic weapons (0 vs. 6.8%, p < 0.001) and high-capacity magazines (7.6 vs. 28.9%, p < 0.001) increased over time. CONCLUSIONS: The increased burden of firearm injury is related to an overall increase in firearm exposure as measured by the total number of rounds discharged. High-capacity magazines and automatic weaponry are being used with increasing frequency in urban American.

Evaluating the Feasibility of a Novel Firearm Injury Prevention Program for Pre-adolescent Children Through Health Care and Community-Based Partnerships: The Future Healers Program Pilot Study.

BACKGROUND: Firearm violence is an American public health crisis that negatively impacts children and disproportionately affects Black youth. Few firearm injury prevention programs have been described in pre-adolescent children. The Future Healers Program is a novel collaboration constructed via partnership between the medical school, trauma center, academic surgery department, and local non-profit community organization. Our study sought to evaluate if (1) partnering with community organizations facilitated recruitment of children with prior exposure to firearm violence and (2) the health care community was a potential trusted partner appropriate for program delivery. METHODS: Children aged 4-13 were recruited to join the program via news outlets and social media and in partnership with a local non-profit organization. Of the children and parents participating in the program, 48% (44/92) and 59% (38/64), respectively, completed an IRB-approved survey study. Pearson's chi-square, percentages, and 95% confidence intervals evaluated differences between children and caregivers on sociodemographic characteristics, firearm exposure (FE), firearm violence exposure (FVE), and perception of health care. Participant's residence was geocoded in relationship to incidents of firearm injury (2008-2021) in the same region. RESULTS: Caregivers (95%) and children (84%) reported substantial exposure to firearm violence and resided in areas with frequent firearm injury incidents. Notably, 82% of caregivers and 66% of children reported having a family member injured by gunfire. A high percentage of caregivers (79%) and children (91%) self-reported trust in the health care system. CONCLUSION: Partnerships between community organizations and health care systems can develop prevention programs that effectively recruit and engage pre-adolescent children impacted by firearm violence.

Explaining Health Disparities in the Sexual Minority Population: The Role of Neighborhood Effects.

Individual health is affected not only by characteristics and behaviors of the individual, but also by the environment in which the individual lives. Although neighborhood effects are well-established in the health literature, whether these effects are different for sexual minority populations is unknown. There is evidence that the neighborhoods in which sexual minorities reside are distinct from those in which heterosexuals reside, which could give rise to differential neighborhood effects. This research uses restricted data from the National Center for Health Statistics Research Data Center-which include neighborhood identifiers-to investigate health-relevant differences between the neighborhoods in which heterosexuals and sexual minorities reside. We also provide preliminary evidence on whether neighborhood effects explain any or all the disparities in health behaviors or health outcomes between sexual minority and heterosexual populations or mediate or moderate the effects of other covariates in explaining these disparities.

Correction to: Geographic Access to Registered Behavior Technicians among Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1007/s40617-022-00729-1.].

Geographic Access to Registered Behavior Technicians among Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Research has documented inequities in geographic access to board certified behavior analysts (BCBAs) among children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Unexplored is geographic access to registered behavior technicians (RBTs), the frontline ABA providers BCBAs supervise. In this study we examined county-level geographic access to RBTs in the United States, including change in their geographic distribution over time, the current distribution of RBTs related to the distribution of BCBAs, and the current distribution of RBTs as a function of children with ASD. The sample included all U.S. counties in all 50 states and the District of Columbia (N = 3,138). County-level ASD/RBT ratios indicate that the number of children with ASD far exceed RBTs, and the geographic accessibility of RBTs appears to be superior to that of BCBAs.

A new pandemic and an old epidemic: The impact of COVID-19 and gun violence as measured by years of potential life lost in a US city.

BACKGROUND: The COVID-19 pandemic has altered daily life on a global scale and has resulted in significant mortality with >985,000 lives lost in the United States alone. Superimposed on the COVID-19 pandemic has been a concurrent worsening of longstanding urban gun violence. We sought to evaluate the impact attributable to these 2 major public health issues on the greater Louisville region as determined by years of potential life lost. METHODS: Using the Collaborative Jefferson County Firearm Injury Database, all firearm injuries from January 1, 2011 to December 31, 2021 were examined. The COVID-19 data was compiled from the Louisville Metro Department of Public Health and Wellness. Pre-COVID (March 1, 2019-February 29, 2020) and COVID (March 1, 2020-February 28, 2021) time intervals were examined. The demographics, outcomes data, and years of potential life lost were determined for the groups, and injury locations were geocoded. RESULTS: From 2011 to 2021, there were 6,043 firearm injuries in Jefferson County, Kentucky. During the COVID time interval, there were 4,574 years of potential life lost due to the SARS-CoV-2 virus and 9,722 years of potential life lost due to all-cause gun violence. In the pre-COVID time interval, there were 5,723 years of potential life lost due to all-cause gun violence. CONCLUSION: In Louisville, greater years of potential life lost were attributable to firearm fatalities than the SARS-CoV-2 virus. Given the impact of COVID-19, the robust response has been proportionate and appropriate. The lack of response to firearm injury and fatality is striking in comparison. Additional resources to combat the sequelae of gun violence are needed.

Trends in Geographic Access to Board Certified Behavior Analysts Among Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder, 2018-2021.

Research has documented inequities in geographic access to Board Certified Behavior Analysts (BCBAs) among children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). However, research on their accessibility is outdated. Between July 1, 2018 and July 1, 2021 the number of BCBAs in the U.S. increased by 65%, from 27,320 to 45,103. In this study we examined trends in geographic access to BCBAs among children with ASD between 2018 and 2021. The sample included all U.S. counties in 50 states and D.C. (N = 3138). Using GIS software we examined change in county-level access to BCBAs between 2018 and 2021 and mapped ASD/BCBA ratios across all counties in both years. Study results indicate that despite modest improvements (e.g., 266 counties added BCBAs), inequitable access persists.

County-level variation in geographic access to Board Certified Behavior Analysts among children with Autism Spectrum Disorder in the United States.

LAY ABSTRACT: This study looked at whether access to Board Certified Behavior Analysts for children with autism spectrum disorder is different between U.S. counties. The study included all U.S. counties and county equivalents in 48 states and D.C. (N = 3108). Between March and May 2019, we combined data from the U.S. Department of Education's Civil Rights Data Collection, Behavior Analyst Certification Board's certificant registry, and U.S. Census. We assigned Board Certified Behavior Analysts to counties based on their address, matched children in school districts to counties, and determined how many children with autism spectrum disorder there were in a county compared with how many Board Certified Behavior Analysts there were in a county. The results show uneven numbers of Board Certified Behavior Analysts between U.S. counties. More than half of all counties had no Board Certified Behavior Analysts. National maps illustrate clusters of high and low accessibility to Board Certified Behavior Analysts. To improve access to Board Certified Behavior Analysts in underserved areas, we must identify what contributes to the differences in access.

Impact of County Sociodemographic Factors and State Policy on Geographic Access to Behavior Analysts Among Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder.

To examine the relationship between geographic access to Board Certified Behavior Analysts (BCBAs) among children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and county sociodemographic factors and state policy, we integrated publicly available data from the U.S. Department of Education's Civil Rights Data Collection, Behavior Analyst Certification Board's certificant registry, and U.S. Census. The study sample included U.S. counties and county equivalents (e.g., parishes, independent cities) in 49 states and D.C. (N = 3040). Using GIS software, we assigned BCBAs to counties based on their residence, allocated children via school districts to counties, and generated per-capita children with ASD/BCBA ratios. We distributed counties into five categories based on these ratios: no BCBAs (reference), ≥ 31, 21-30, 11-20, > 0-10. We used a generalized logit model to conduct analyses. Highly affluent and urban counties had the highest access to BCBAs with odds ratio estimates for affluence ranging from 2.26 to 5.26. County-level poverty was positively associated with access, yet this relationship was moderated by urbanicity. Race-ethnicity and healthcare insurance coverage were negatively related to access. Other variables were not significant. Targeting non-urban and less affluent counties for provider recruitment and maintenance could most improve access to BCBAs. In addition to strategies specific to BCBAs for improving geographic access, traditional strategies used for other healthcare providers could be useful.

The impact of historical racism on modern gun violence: Redlining in the city of Louisville, KY.

BACKGROUND: The Home Owner's Loan Corporation (HOLC) was created in 1933 to provide government backing of troubled mortgages during the Great Depression. Residential security maps were created to guide investment in over 200 US cities. Neighborhoods were assigned grades of 'A' through 'D' (with corresponding color coding of green, blue, yellow and red) to indicate desirability for investment. Neighborhoods with a high percentage of African Americans or other minorities were frequently assigned grades of 'C' or 'D'. These maps are now most associated with redlining, or the process of denial of credit for real estate investment based on race. Resulting economic disparities endure in areas of many US cities today. We hypothesized that there would be a correlation between redlined areas on the 1937 map of Louisville, KY to the prevalence of gun violence today. METHODS: Gunshot victims (GSV) and their residential addresses within the city of Louisville were examined between 2012 and 2018. GSVs were aggregated within census block groups to approximate neighborhoods. The spatial distribution of GSVs was analyzed against the original HOLC neighborhood grade. Additional control variables adapted from the 2013-2017 American Community Survey were included to account for other possible explanations for the spatial distribution of GSVs. A zero-inflated negative binomial regression with a spatial component was used to determine incidence rate ratios (IRR) for the relative likelihood of GSVs within neighborhoods. RESULTS: Relative to green-graded neighborhoods, red-graded neighborhoods had five times as many GSVs. This difference remained statistically significant after accounting for differences in demographic, racial, and housing characteristics of the neighborhoods. CONCLUSION: Redlined neighborhoods within Louisville, KY in 1937 had significantly more GSVs today. The impact of historical and institutional racism on modern gun violence merits acknowledgement and further study.

Employment and residential characteristics in relation to automated external defibrillator locations.

BACKGROUND: Survival from out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) is generally poor and varies by geography. Variability in automated external defibrillator (AED) locations may be a contributing factor. To inform optimal placement of AEDs, we investigated AED access in a major US city relative to demographic and employment characteristics. METHODS AND RESULTS: This was a retrospective analysis of a Philadelphia AED registry (2,559 total AEDs). The 2010 US Census and the Local Employment Dynamics database by ZIP code was used. Automated external defibrillator access was calculated as the weighted areal percentage of each ZIP code covered by a 400-m radius around each AED. Of 47 ZIP codes, only 9% (4) were high-AED-service areas. In 26% (12) of ZIP codes, less than 35% of the area was covered by AED service areas. Higher-AED-access ZIP codes were more likely to have a moderately populated residential area (P = .032), higher median household income (P = .006), and higher paying jobs (P =. 008). CONCLUSIONS: The locations of AEDs vary across specific ZIP codes; select residential and employment characteristics explain some variation. Further work on evaluating OHCA locations, AED use and availability, and OHCA outcomes could inform AED placement policies. Optimizing the placement of AEDs through this work may help to increase survival.

Has the NFL's Rooney Rule Efforts "Leveled the Field" for African American Head Coach Candidates?

Madden (2004) and Madden and Ruther (2009) provide evidence that African American National Football League (NFL) head coaches significantly out-performed their white counterparts between 1990 and 2002. They conclude that this evidence is consistent with the hypothesis that African Americans had to be better coaches than whites in order to be hired as a head coach in the NFL. In 2002, the NFL promulgated the Rooney Rule requiring NFL teams to interview a minority candidate when appointing new head coaches, as well as other affirmative efforts. This paper analyzes whether the performance advantage of African American head coaches has been eliminated in the time since the Rooney Rule's affirmative efforts have been in effect. The paper also examines racial differentials in performance in other NFL coaching positions that were less affected by Rooney Rule affirmative efforts, finding no similar time trends in performance differentials by race.