Amnesia after Repeated Head Impact Is Caused by Impaired Synaptic Plasticity in the Memory Engram.

Subconcussive head impacts are associated with the development of acute and chronic cognitive deficits. We recently reported that high-frequency head impact (HFHI) causes chronic cognitive deficits in mice through synaptic changes. To better understand the mechanisms underlying HFHI-induced memory decline, we used TRAP2/Ai32 transgenic mice to enable visualization and manipulation of memory engrams. We labeled the fear memory engram in male and female mice exposed to an aversive experience and subjected them to sham or HFHI. Upon subsequent exposure to natural memory recall cues, sham, but not HFHI, mice successfully retrieved fearful memories. In sham mice the hippocampal engram neurons exhibited synaptic plasticity, evident in amplified AMPA:NMDA ratio, enhanced AMPA-weighted tau, and increased dendritic spine volume compared with nonengram neurons. In contrast, although HFHI mice retained a comparable number of hippocampal engram neurons, these neurons did not undergo synaptic plasticity. This lack of plasticity coincided with impaired activation of the engram network, leading to retrograde amnesia in HFHI mice. We validated that the memory deficits induced by HFHI stem from synaptic plasticity impairments by artificially activating the engram using optogenetics and found that stimulated memory recall was identical in both sham and HFHI mice. Our work shows that chronic cognitive impairment after HFHI is a result of deficiencies in synaptic plasticity instead of a loss in neuronal infrastructure, and we can reinstate a forgotten memory in the amnestic brain by stimulating the memory engram. Targeting synaptic plasticity may have therapeutic potential for treating memory impairments caused by repeated head impacts.

Immune activation state modulates infant engram expression across development.

Infantile amnesia is possibly the most ubiquitous form of memory loss in mammals. We investigated how memories are stored in the brain throughout development by integrating engram labeling technology with mouse models of infantile amnesia. Here, we found a phenomenon in which male offspring in maternal immune activation models of autism spectrum disorder do not experience infantile amnesia. Maternal immune activation altered engram ensemble size and dendritic spine plasticity. We rescued the same apparently forgotten infantile memories in neurotypical mice by optogenetically reactivating dentate gyrus engram cells labeled during complex experiences in infancy. Furthermore, we permanently reinstated lost infantile memories by artificially updating the memory engram, demonstrating that infantile amnesia is a reversible process. Our findings suggest not only that infantile amnesia is due to a reversible retrieval deficit in engram expression but also that immune activation during development modulates innate, and reversible, forgetting switches that determine whether infantile amnesia will occur.

Engram cell connectivity as a mechanism for information encoding and memory function.

Information derived from experiences is incorporated into the brain as changes to ensembles of cells, termed engram cells, which allow memory storage and recall. The mechanism by which those changes hold specific information is unclear. Here, we test the hypothesis that the specific synaptic wiring between engram cells is the substrate of information storage. First, we monitor how learning modifies the connectivity pattern between engram cells at a monosynaptic connection involving the hippocampal ventral CA1 (vCA1) region and the amygdala. Then, we assess the functional significance of these connectivity changes by artificially activating or inhibiting its presynaptic and postsynaptic components, respectively. Finally, we identify a synaptic plasticity mechanism mediated by postsynaptic density protein 95 (PSD-95), which impacts the connectivity pattern among engram cells and contributes to the long-term stability of the memory. These findings impact our theory of learning and memory by helping us explain the translation of specific information into engram cells and how these connections shape brain function.

Engram cell connectivity as a mechanism for information encoding and memory function.

Information derived from experiences is incorporated into the brain as changes to ensembles of cells, termed engram cells, that allow memory storage and recall. The mechanism by which those changes hold specific information is unclear. Here we test the hypothesis that the specific synaptic wiring between engram cells is the substrate of information storage. First, we monitor how learning modifies the connectivity pattern between engram cells at a monosynaptic connection involving the hippocampal vCA1 region and the amygdala. Then, we assess the functional significance of these connectivity changes by artificially activating or inhibiting its presynaptic and postsynaptic components respectively. Finally, we identify a synaptic plasticity mechanism mediated by PSD-95, which impacts the connectivity pattern among engram cells and contributes to the long-term stability of the memory. These findings impact our theory of learning and memory by helping us explain the translation of specific information into engram cells and how these connections shape brain function.

Adaptive expression of engrams by retroactive interference.

Long-term memories are stored as configurations of neuronal ensembles, termed engrams. Although investigation of engram cell properties and functionality in memory recall has been extensive, less is known about how engram cells are affected by forgetting. We describe a form of interference-based forgetting using an object memory behavioral paradigm. By using activity-dependent cell labeling, we show that although retroactive interference results in decreased engram cell reactivation during recall trials, optogenetic stimulation of the labeled engram cells is sufficient to induce memory retrieval. Forgotten engrams may be reinstated via the presentation of similar or related environmental information. Furthermore, we demonstrate that engram activity is necessary for interference to occur. Taken together, these findings indicate that retroactive interference modules engram expression in a manner that is both reversible and updatable. Inference may constitute a form of adaptive forgetting where, in everyday life, new perceptual and environmental inputs modulate the natural forgetting process.

FENS-Kavli Network of Excellence: Science needs strong European cohesion.

Decades of scientific collaboration have brought innovation, prosperity and wide societal benefit to Europe. However, recent political events have impacted pan-European research and collaborations, and solutions are yet to materialise. Here, we argue that a vibrant, united European Research community led by its members and independent from political bodies is needed for Europe to remain a successful, interconnected scientific hub and keep delivering globally competitive science. The Federation of European Neuroscience Societies (FENS) is in an ideal position to play a paramount role in this endeavour.

Understanding the physical basis of memory: Molecular mechanisms of the engram.

Memory, defined as the storage and use of learned information in the brain, is necessary to modulate behavior and critical for animals to adapt to their environments and survive. Despite being a cornerstone of brain function, questions surrounding the molecular and cellular mechanisms of how information is encoded, stored, and recalled remain largely unanswered. One widely held theory is that an engram is formed by a group of neurons that are active during learning, which undergoes biochemical and physical changes to store information in a stable state, and that are later reactivated during recall of the memory. In the past decade, the development of engram labeling methodologies has proven useful to investigate the biology of memory at the molecular and cellular levels. Engram technology allows the study of individual memories associated with particular experiences and their evolution over time, with enough experimental resolution to discriminate between different memory processes: learning (encoding), consolidation (the passage from short-term to long-term memories), and storage (the maintenance of memory in the brain). Here, we review the current understanding of memory formation at a molecular and cellular level by focusing on insights provided using engram technology.

The role of higher-order thalamus during learning and correct performance in goal-directed behavior.

The thalamus is a gateway to the cortex. Cortical encoding of complex behavior can therefore only be understood by considering the thalamic processing of sensory and internally generated information. Here, we use two-photon Ca2+ imaging and optogenetics to investigate the role of axonal projections from the posteromedial nucleus of the thalamus (POm) to the forepaw area of the mouse primary somatosensory cortex (forepaw S1). By recording the activity of POm axonal projections within forepaw S1 during expert and chance performance in two tactile goal-directed tasks, we demonstrate that POm axons increase activity in the response and, to a lesser extent, reward epochs specifically during correct HIT performance. When performing at chance level during learning of a new behavior, POm axonal activity was decreased to naive rates and did not correlate with task performance. However, once evoked, the Ca2+ transients were larger than during expert performance, suggesting POm input to S1 differentially encodes chance and expert performance. Furthermore, the POm influences goal-directed behavior, as photoinactivation of archaerhodopsin-expressing neurons in the POm decreased the learning rate and overall success in the behavioral task. Taken together, these findings expand the known roles of the higher-thalamic nuclei, illustrating the POm encodes and influences correct action during learning and performance in a sensory-based goal-directed behavior.

Forgetting as a form of adaptive engram cell plasticity.

One leading hypothesis suggests that memories are stored in ensembles of neurons (or 'engram cells') and that successful recall involves reactivation of these ensembles. A logical extension of this idea is that forgetting occurs when engram cells cannot be reactivated. Forms of 'natural forgetting' vary considerably in terms of their underlying mechanisms, time course and reversibility. However, we suggest that all forms of forgetting involve circuit remodelling that switches engram cells from an accessible state (where they can be reactivated by natural recall cues) to an inaccessible state (where they cannot). In many cases, forgetting rates are modulated by environmental conditions and we therefore propose that forgetting is a form of neuroplasticity that alters engram cell accessibility in a manner that is sensitive to mismatches between expectations and the environment. Moreover, we hypothesize that disease states associated with forgetting may hijack natural forgetting mechanisms, resulting in reduced engram cell accessibility and memory loss.

Effect of Raw and Extruded Propionic Acid-Treated Field Beans on Energy and Crude Protein Digestibility (In-Vitro and In-Vivo), Growth and Carcass Quality in Grow-Finisher Pigs.

The in-vitro ileal digestibility of dry matter (DM), organic matter (OM), and crude protein (CP) of field beans treated with propionic acid (trFB) and extruded trFB (exFB) was determined in experiment 1. The DE and dCP values of trFB and exFB were determined using the difference method in experiment 2. The effect of replacing SBM with trFB and exFB in grow-finisher diets on growth, carcass quality, apparent ileal digestibility (AiD), and total tract digestibility (ATTD) of DM, OM, gross energy (GE), and CP were investigated in experiment 3. In exp. 1, in-vitro digestibility of exFB compared to trFB was unchanged for DM (p = 0.12), increased for OM (p < 0.05), and increased for CP (p < 0.05). In exp. 2, the DE value of trFB and exFB was 14.38 and 15.75 MJ/kg respectively; and the dCP value was 21.35% and 21.42% respectively (on DM basis). In exp. 3, ADFI was higher for pigs fed trFB and exFB compared to the control diet (CON; p < 0.05), while ADG, FCR and carcass quality parameters of pigs did not differ among treatments (p > 0.05).

Engram cell connectivity: an evolving substrate for information storage.

Understanding memory requires an explanation for how information can be stored in the brain in a stable state. The change in the brain that accounts for a given memory is referred to as an engram. In recent years, the term engram has been operationalized as the cells that are activated by a learning experience, undergoes plasticity, and are sufficient and necessary for memory recall. Using this framework, and a growing toolbox of related experimental techniques, engram manipulation has become a central topic in behavioral, systems, and molecular neuroscience. Recent research on the topic has provided novel insights into the mechanisms of long-term memory storage, and its overlap with instinct. We propose that memory and instinct may be embodied as isomorphic topological structures within the brain's microanatomical circuitry.

Effect of cereal fermentation and carbohydrase supplementation on growth, nutrient digestibility and intestinal microbiota in liquid-fed grow-finishing pigs.

This study aimed to determine the impact of fermenting the cereal fraction of the diet (Cferm) and enzyme supplementation (ENZ) on the bacterial composition of the feed, nutrient digestibility, pig growth, feed efficiency (FE), intestinal volatile fatty acid (VFA) concentrations and intestinal microbiota composition. A total of 252 grow-finisher pigs (~ 40.4 kg; 7 pigs/pen) were randomly allocated to 4 diets in a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement for 55d. The diets were: (1) fresh liquid feed (Fresh); (2) Cferm liquid feed (Ferm); (3) Fresh + ENZ and (4) Ferm + ENZ. Cferm increased total tract nutrient digestibility, reduced caecal butyrate and propionate concentrations, and increased average daily gain (ADG). ENZ increased ileal and total tract nutrient digestibility, reduced caecal isobutyrate and propionate concentrations, and improved FE. Bacterial taxa positively correlated with pig growth (Lactobacillus kisonensis in the ileum and Roseburia faecis in the caecum) were more abundant in pigs fed ENZ diets, whereas most of the ileal bacterial taxa negatively correlated with growth (Megasphaera, Bifidobacterium and Streptococcus) had lower abundance in pigs fed Cferm diets. In conclusion, Cferm increased ADG and ENZ improved FE, with these improvements possibly mediated by increased nutrient digestibility, and beneficial modulation of the intestinal microbiota.

Memory: It's Not a Lie if You Believe It.

Memories are crucial for making accurate predictions about our environment. New research suggests that, in the face of limited perceptual evidence, our brains quickly form generalized contextual memory engrams that can be refined based on future, confirmatory or misleading, experience.

Effect of cereal soaking and carbohydrase supplementation on growth, nutrient digestibility and intestinal microbiota in liquid-fed grow-finishing pigs.

Soaking the cereal fraction of a liquid diet prior to feeding (Csoak), and/or carbohydrase enzyme supplementation (ENZ) are likely to modulate both feed and intestinal microbial populations and improve feed efficiency (FE) in pigs. To test this hypothesis, a total of 392 grow-finisher pigs (~33.4 kg, 7 pigs/pen) were randomly allocated to 4 treatments in a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement for 70 days as follows: (1) fresh liquid feed (Fresh); (2) Cereal soaked liquid feed (Soak); (3) Fresh + ENZ and (4) Soak + ENZ. An interaction between ENZ and Csoak was found for average daily gain (ADG) during the growing phase (day 0 to 21; P < 0.05) where pigs fed the Soak + ENZ diet had higher ADG than pigs fed the Fresh + ENZ diet. No treatment effect was found for ADG thereafter. Enzyme supplementation increased total tract nutrient digestibility (P < 0.05) and reduced caecal VFA concentrations (P < 0.05) but did not improve pig growth or FE. Both Csoak and ENZ modulated intestinal microbiota composition; increasing abundance of bacterial taxa that were negatively correlated with pig growth and reducing abundance of taxa positively correlated with pig growth and caecal butyrate concentration. In conclusion, both strategies (Csoak and ENZ) improved nutrient digestibility in pigs and modulated intestinal microbiota composition.

Engram Cell Excitability State Determines the Efficacy of Memory Retrieval.

Animals need to optimize the efficacy of memory retrieval to adapt to environmental circumstances for survival. The recent development of memory engram labeling technology allows a precise investigation of the processes associated with the recall of a specific memory. Here, we show that engram cell excitability is transiently increased following memory reactivation. This short-term increase of engram excitability enhances the subsequent retrieval of specific memory content in response to cues and is manifest in the animal's ability to recognize contexts more precisely and more effectively. These results reveal a hitherto unknown transient enhancement of context recognition based on the plasticity of engram cell excitability. They also suggest that recall of a contextual memory is influenced by previous but recent activation of the same engram. The state of excitability of engram cells mediates differential behavioral outcomes upon memory retrieval and may be crucial for survival by promoting adaptive behavior.

The Developmental Shift of NMDA Receptor Composition Proceeds Independently of GluN2 Subunit-Specific GluN2 C-Terminal Sequences.

The GluN2 subtype (2A versus 2B) determines biophysical properties and signaling of forebrain NMDA receptors (NMDARs). During development, GluN2A becomes incorporated into previously GluN2B-dominated NMDARs. This "switch" is proposed to be driven by distinct features of GluN2 cytoplasmic C-terminal domains (CTDs), including a unique CaMKII interaction site in GluN2B that drives removal from the synapse. However, these models remain untested in the context of endogenous NMDARs. We show that, although mutating the endogenous GluN2B CaMKII site has secondary effects on GluN2B CTD phosphorylation, the developmental changes in NMDAR composition occur normally and measures of plasticity and synaptogenesis are unaffected. Moreover, the switch proceeds normally in mice that have the GluN2A CTD replaced by that of GluN2B and commences without an observable decline in GluN2B levels but is impaired by GluN2A haploinsufficiency. Thus, GluN2A expression levels, and not GluN2 subtype-specific CTD-driven events, are the overriding factor in the developmental switch in NMDAR composition.

United states of amnesia: rescuing memory loss from diverse conditions.

Amnesia - the loss of memory function - is often the earliest and most persistent symptom of dementia. It occurs as a consequence of a variety of diseases and injuries. These include neurodegenerative, neurological or immune disorders, drug abuse, stroke or head injuries. It has both troubled and fascinated humanity. Philosophers, scientists, physicians and anatomists have all pursued an understanding of how we learn and memorise, and why we forget. In the last few years, the development of memory engram labelling technology has greatly impacted how we can experimentally study memory and its disorders in animals. Here, we present a concise discussion of what we have learned about amnesia through the manipulation of engrams, and how we may use this knowledge to inform novel treatments of amnesia.