Emotion regulation unveiled through the categorical lens of attachment.

BACKGROUND: Emotion regulation, the process by which individuals manage and modify their emotional experiences, expressions, and responses to adaptively navigate and cope with various situations, plays a crucial role in daily life. Our study investigates the variations in emotion regulation strategies among individuals with different attachment styles (AS). Specifically, we examine how individuals with secure, anxious, avoidant, and fearful attachment styles effectively utilize cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression to regulate their emotions. METHODS: A total of n = 98 adults were instructed to attend, reappraise, or suppress their emotions while viewing negative and neutral images from the International Affective Picture System (IAPS) in an experimental emotion regulation task. After completing the task, participants rated the valence and arousal elicited by the images. Attachment styles were measured using the ECR-12 questionnaire and then categorized into four AS. RESULTS: Our study revealed that individuals with secure AS (n = 39) effectively reduced displeasure through cognitive reappraisal but experienced levels of displeasure with expressive suppression. Anxious AS (n = 16) individuals successfully reduced displeasure using cognitive reappraisal but struggled to regulate arousal and effectively use expressive suppression. Avoidant AS (n = 24) individuals could reduce displeasure with both strategies but experienced high arousal during suppression attempts. Fearful AS (n = 19) individuals effectively regulated both displeasure and arousal using either strategy. However, Secure AS individuals showed superior reappraisal efficacy, significantly reducing arousal levels compared to the Fearful AS group. Both Secure and Avoidant AS groups experienced higher valence during reappraisal relative to a baseline, indicating a decrease in displeasure. CONCLUSIONS: Individuals with different AS exhibit variations in the effectiveness of their use of emotion regulation strategies. Our findings reinforce the significance of AS in shaping emotion regulation processes and emphasize the need for tailored approaches to support individuals with different attachment orientations.

Brain oscillations during emotion regulation and the two-dimensional model of adult attachment.

Emotion Regulation (ER) refers to the processes by which individuals influence their own emotions. It is a crucial aspect of human behavior, affecting everything from interpersonal relationships to mental health. The relationship between ER and Attachment Theory (AT) is pivotal. AT suggests that early bonds with primary caregivers influence future relationship expectations and behaviors. These initial experiences shape internal models of self and others, affecting how individuals regulate their emotions. Understanding the interplay between ER and AT is essential for comprehending the human affective system. In this study, we explored the neural underpinnings of ER, focusing on two distinct strategies: cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression. Using electroencephalography (EEG), we examined changes in neural oscillations from 52 adults during an ER task. Specifically, we observed increased frontal theta activity (3-6 Hz) during reappraisal compared to suppression strategies. This frontal theta activity suggests enhanced cognitive control engagement. Conversely, during suppression, we noted a decrease in beta frequency (15-30 Hz) activity from central electrodes, indicative of differing neural processes. Further integrating psychological theories, we explored the relationship between these neural markers and dimensions of human attachment. Employing the Experiences in Close Relationships-12 scale (ECR-12), we identified a negative correlation between attachment anxiety and frontal theta activity. Lower levels of attachment anxiety were associated with increased theta activity, reflecting potentially more effective emotion regulation. Additionally, we found that higher theta activity corresponded with fewer difficulties in emotional control measured by the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS). Regarding central beta activity, our findings revealed an interesting correlation with Emotional Inattention, a concept tied to Attachment Avoidance. This suggests that central beta activity may serve as a neural marker for specific attachment-related ER processing. These results highlight the distinct neural pathways involved in different ER strategies and their relationship with the AT and neural responses during emotional processing.

Odor cueing of declarative memories during sleep enhances coordinated spindles and slow oscillations.

Long-term memories are formed by repeated reactivation of newly encoded information during sleep. This process can be enhanced by using memory-associated reminder cues like sounds and odors. While auditory cueing has been researched extensively, few electrophysiological studies have exploited the various benefits of olfactory cueing. We used high-density electroencephalography in an odor-cueing paradigm that was designed to isolate the neural responses specific to the cueing of declarative memories. We show widespread cueing-induced increases in the duration and rate of sleep spindles. Higher spindle rates were most prominent over centro-parietal areas and largely overlapping with a concurrent increase in the amplitude of slow oscillations (SOs). Interestingly, greater SO amplitudes were linked to a higher likelihood of coupling a spindle and coupled spindles expressed during cueing were more numerous in particular around SO up states. We thus identify temporally and spatially coordinated enhancements of sleep spindles and slow oscillations as a candidate mechanism behind cueing-induced memory processing. Our results further demonstrate the feasibility of studying neural activity patterns linked to such processing using olfactory cueing during sleep.

Emotion regulation strategies and the two-dimensional model of adult attachment: a pilot study.

Introduction: Emotion Regulation plays a crucial role in human's daily lives. Extensive research has shown that people with different attachment orientations exhibit divergencies in how they perform emotion regulation strategies. Methods: 44 adults performed an experimental emotion regulation task in which they were instructed to attend, reappraise, or suppress their emotions while viewing negative and neutral images taken from the International Affective Picture System (IAPS). Afterward, participants rated valence, arousal, and emotional dominance elicited by the images. Additionally, attachment orientations were measured using the ECR-12 questionnaire. Results: Results showed a relationship between attachment avoidance and the level of arousal during the reappraisal condition; specifically, the higher attachment avoidance levels, the greater the emotional intensity during the implementation of cognitive reappraisal strategy. Such results suggest an association between failing in downregulate intense emotions using cognitive reappraisal when there are higher levels of attachment avoidance. Consistently, we also found that lower dominance during reappraisal was associated with more levels of avoidance. Conclusion: These results indicate that people with higher levels of attachment avoidance experience difficulties when using the cognitive reappraisal strategy to reduce the emotional impact produced by negative emotional stimuli. Our findings reinforce the idea that avoidant people experience high physiological activation when experience emotions.